Cosmic Queries – Infinite Quarks
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Coming up on StarTalk, yet another edition of the ever popular Cosmic Queries. Of course, I've got Chuck Nice. And in there, like, we're going to learn, is the speed of light constant? How do we even know what the speed of light is? By the way, there's like a bunch of questions. I'm just pulling out some of my favorite. Another one was, if quarks fall into a black hole, the

But what happens to them? Is it different from anything else? And if you're a beam of light, can you escape the universe? And could you see that? There's really good stuff coming up on StarTalk. Welcome to StarTalk. Your place in the universe where science and pop culture collide. StarTalk begins right now.

This is StarTalk. I'm Billy Grass Tyson, your personal astrophysicist. You got with me Chuck Knight. Chuck, baby. Hey, what's happening? You got your tablet out. I got my tablet. You know what that means.

means it's Cosmic Queries. Cosmic Queries. That's right. Inquiring minds want to know. Indeed. Indeed. Cosmic Queries. It's become one of our most popular formats. Yep. That's great. Great, great. I think people feel that they have a bit of control over the show. Is that why? That's what it is. Okay. Otherwise, we just run amok. Right. Okay. Well, so we're here back in my office at the American Museum of Natural History, the

The Hayden Planetarium, where I serve as a director. That's right. Right here in New York City. All right. All right. And I serve in the cafeteria. Stop. Stop.

Want fries with that? Yeah, exactly. All right. All right. So just go right on in. Okay, let's jump into it. And it's Grab Bag. It is Grab Bag, which we used to call Galactic Gumbo. But why don't we call it that anymore? I don't know what happened to Galactic Gumbo. People probably got tired of me going, guarantee me. Isn't he dead? I don't know. I'm not sure. But he's...

Paul Poudon, right? I don't know if that's his... I don't know his name. All I know is he used to be on PBS. He wore suspenders. He weighed about 600 pounds. Now, now, I got myself some crawdads, yeah? All that edition. We're going to add some... Every eighth word. He was like the James Brown cooking show. That little man didn't shoot a guy. I'll beat you with it.

Get him with those guarantee.

If James Brown were Cajun, there's no understanding. There's no understanding. You wouldn't understand a word. You wouldn't know one, not one song.

All right, here we go. Hello, Dr. Tyson, Lord, nice. This is Sarah coming from Austin, Texas. When we're talking about the age of the universe, 13.8 billion years, is the age of years in Earth years? Or is it the average time used? If it's Earth years, then wouldn't it be a different age of the universe depending on your location? Hmm.

Yeah, it's Earth years. It's Earth years. That's a unit of time we just all agree to. Right. And that exists as a unit of time right now with or without the Earth. Right. We've defined it as a length of time measured by an atomic clock.

Right. So if Earth got destroyed out of the solar system by some cosmic monster... Ooh, that sounds like a good movie. A day and an Earth would still be defined. Okay. Because we no longer rely on the rotation of the Earth. It's not the rotation. And the orbit of the Earth around the sun to reckon our...

or a counting of seconds. It's a standard unit of measurement. Correct. Okay. So, yeah, it's just earth years. And you will get a bigger number in centimeters than you will in inches. Right. That doesn't mean the distance is farther. But the distance is the same. You're just measuring it in different terms. So it doesn't make a difference. Correct, yeah. So nothing will lose sleep over that. I like to use hands myself. Oh, you ride horses. That's exactly, that's the distance that I use. So you know how big a hand is? No. Four inches.

That's a tiny little hand. Who would measure hands like that? Four inches. Four inches. That's about... I think it's four inches. That's like this much of my hand. No, no. It's the width of your hand. Oh, I didn't know that. Now, that I did not know. You thought it was like a whole hand. I thought it was a hand. You put a hand in

No, no, no. No, no, no. It's sideways. Oh, it's like this. Sideways, hands. Okay, well that makes a little... Yeah, yeah. I think it's around four inches. Four inches. Okay. There you go. That's how high you measure. Horses used to be measured from head to hoof. How many hands high they would stand. I'm glad you didn't know that because that would give me even more evidence that you did not grow up in the city.

I was born in the city. Okay. Why did we learn about you? Well, when I was in prep school and I played polo, the stables had many horses. I said, who is my co-host here? Who is this guy? All right. My prep school chums were...

I did go to prep school, but that has nothing to do with my horse affiliates. Your horse ignorance. Yes. Okay, fine. My horse ignorance comes from, I used to attend riding camp when I was much younger. Okay. All right. So, anyway. But it's been years since I've been on a horse. And, you know, the truth is, I think they're disgusting creatures at this point. Yeah.

But they are delicious. No. Stop. Please do not write. These are jokes. Something interesting about a horse. What's that? Okay. So a human brain is about this big. Okay. Do you know how big a horse brain is? No. About the size of your fist. About the size of a fist. Yeah. They're a way bigger animal with a much smaller brain. Yeah, well, you know, I don't need them to solve calculus problems.

You know, my thing is like, pull this plow. That's what I need you for. Okay. And the horse is just fine with it. That's it. All right. Okay. What else you got? This is Nobody. Hey, Nobody from nowhere, Vermont. Hello, Dr. Tyson. Lord, nice. There's a character in West Side Story called Anybody. Anybody. I did not know that. Yes.

It's a tomboy called Anybody. Oh, really? Yes. She wants to be with the gang. She's got a dirty face, short hair, wears pants, can fight, but they don't let her. Sounds rather sexy to me. They didn't let her in because... Because she's a girl. She's a girl. Wow. Back when things were quite binary. I wonder, has gang... Like...

protocol changed? Like if you're... You go to the high council. Like, yeah. I wonder if they're sitting around all the OGs and the young Gs and just like, have we advanced to the point where we can let girls in here and shoot them as well? Do I? I'm just wondering if anybody's came from nowhere. Oh, okay. So there you go. If anybody came from nowhere. This person's from nowhere. He's from nowhere, Vermont? Nowhere, Vermont. Okay.

So it says, hello, Dr. Tyson and Lord Nice. Is there any way for a non-physicist to correspond with a physicist about their papers without being a bother? Okay, I think this guy is angling to send you some discovery that he or she or they have made. So my email is no longer public.

Of course. It's no longer. No longer. It was for a while. For people like nobody. No. Because of nobody. Because I don't want nobody talking to me. I don't want nobody talking to me. Now, if you're somebody, we might be able to talk. Had he been somebody. Had he been somebody. From somewhere. From somewhere, he would have got your email right here. But now he's nobody from nowhere. Nowhere, so you get nothing. Sounds like an Abbott and Costello routine. All right. So, almost every academic. Right.

on their university page has their email posted. That's right. Practically everyone. What you want to do, if you want to correspond, probably you have an idea. Would you do some homework first?

Make sure. Do some homework. Right. Don't go to them and say, I have an idea that Einstein is wrong and that all of you don't know what you're doing. Right. Listen to me. Yes. And there are those out there. Because you spent two hours watching a YouTube video. Exactly. And this person spent their life and career studying that one subject. Exactly. Okay? Yes. So just do a little homework. Do a little homework. All right. And what you don't want to do more than anything. What? Is email Chuck Nice and say, Dr. Tyson is not answering my emails. He's not answering my emails.

That you do not want to do. So that's how, almost all of them, it's online. Almost all. Right. Right. Yeah. Now, here's the thing. Correspond,

without being a bother. Oh, without being a bother. Do your homework and ask an intelligent question. Okay. And don't tell them that you have a new secret to the universe and they have to listen to you. Otherwise, no, that is not humble. That is rather arrogant that you, a non-professional, would know something more than the professional. So come to them a little more humbly. I have an idea. It might be correct. I've thought about it in this way. Right. What do,

do you think of it? And don't send them 20 pages. They won't have time for that. Okay? Exactly. And do your homework. Learn, buy some physics books. Yes. Learn some physics. Right. It's like going to a restaurant and just saying, oh, please, may I have a word with the chef? You know. I'm sorry, but what exactly did you season this with?

May I suggest in the future? No, no. Perhaps some truffle butter would help, sir. Like, yeah, no. No, my favorite reply to that is, you know, people say you eat a great dish and they ask the person who could, what's the secret? Right. So, you know what the answer is? No. The secret?

is six years of chef school. There you go. That's great. That's a great answer too. Six years of chef school. You're thinking something tastes good because there's one secret that they put in that you just learned that secret. You could duplicate what they did.

Right, you don't know it. Give them some credit for expertise. It's a catalog of knowledge. Give them some credit for expertise. Coupled with expertise. Skill. Yes. Yes, you need the skill. Skill, right. Yes. All right. That's great. All right, this is Mitchell Adkins. Can you flip a fried egg with one hand while you're stirring something?

I can't even flip a fried egg, which is why I eat scrambled eggs. It gets scrambled. It gets scrambled en route to being flipped. And I'm like, well, we haven't scrambled eggs now. There you go. I'm not even joking. All right, what else you got? This is Mitchell Adkins. And Mitchell says, hello, doctor and lord.

Well, we're getting shorter and shorter, aren't we? This is Mitchell from Cincinnati, Ohio. I heard an old episode of yours where you talked about the spaghettification of particles at a black hole. You said that this continues all the way down until everything is ripped apart, which would make sense. However, quarks are held together with asymptotic freedom, meaning that the strong force holding them together increases the fur

you pull them apart. Would there theoretically be a point where the gravity ripping quarks apart would balance the strong force of asymptotic freedom and actually end up balancing and creating some kind of equilibrium? - Ooh, so let me tell you something about quarks. - This guy is good. - You might not know. - Go ahead. - I'll tell you something about quarks, okay? We've never seen an isolated quark. - Oh. - They come in pairs. - Okay. - Pairs or more. - There you go. - Okay?

So let's try to create an isolated quark. Okay? Quark. So you go down there and you get like a quark pair and they're stuck together. You begin to pull them apart. No! No! That's my brother! No! You begin to pull... No! You're killing us! So you pull it apart. Okay. And the force holding them together gets stronger. Stronger.

The more you pull. Yeah. The greater is their distance, the stronger is the force. No, it's not that mysterious. Right. Name something every day for which that happens. Magnets? No. No, they get weaker. They get weaker. Something that you pull apart and it gets stronger. Yes. That happens every day. You get it every day.

Every day, as you pull it apart and it gets stronger. The absence from my children. I'm going to go with yes. No, a rubber band.

You pull it harder, it's a stronger force. And it creates more tension. And the closer you're in, the less force there is. And a spring. Right, a spring. There you go. And mathematically, you can represent that with a very tidy formula. And the spring is what's called a spring constant. It tells you how tight it is and how much energy that takes. So we think of this as a spring. But here's the catch. As you pull them so much apart, at the moment...

It snaps. Right. You have pumped so much energy into it. Pulling it apart. Pulling it apart that that energy in that instant becomes two more quarks and now you have two pairs of two quarks. Yo.

That's, it's diabolical. - That is crazy. - It's diabolical. - That is crazy. - It's diabolical. - So the energy that you put in-- - 'Cause I take, it takes energy. - Separate it from quark. - Yes. Equals MC squared. - Right. - Right? Right at the moment, there's enough energy for each one-- - Each one to create another quark. - Another quark. It snaps. - And now once again, you got two-- - You got two quarks. - You got hydro quark. Nice. - You got two quarks on each one. - Right.

Right, so quarks are diabolical in this way. That's... Okay, so as you've fallen down, the tidal force is going to stretch you. Stretch, right. That's giving energy to the quark. Right. So he's wondering if there's some balance point down in there. But now, here's the thing, though. As the quark gets pulled apart, okay, what happens is there is a point of breaking.

So wouldn't you just start making infinite quarks? It kind of seems that way, Chuck. Because that's really, get the equilibrium. We're not looking at equilibrium. We're talking about the creation of the quark. So what you would have is two quarks. Four quarks. Four quarks. Eight quarks. Eight quarks. It would be a runaway. And that would just keep going because it would continually. And quarks would take over the universe. That's it. Ooh. Ooh. Dang.

It's your world. I'm just a quark living in it. So, what we do know is there is no known force that can resist the gravitational collapse to a singularity. Right. So... Right.

I don't know what to say. So at some point, yeah. At some point, the immovable force meets, I mean, the whatever it's called. You know what I'm saying. What is it? Movable object. The movable object. Irresistible force. It meets the irresistible force. So I don't have a good answer. Wow. It seems to me you would have a quark runaway. Right. That's really. I got to talk to some people about this. That's just freaky. I got to talk to some people about this. Freaky, man.

I don't have a good answer for you. Yeah. Chuck just said the quarks will take over the universe, and I don't have a good rebuttal for that. Yeah, that's so cool, though. I mean, what a great thing to think about. All right, here we go. Yeah. Let's see. This is Bobdan. Bob, Bob Dan or Bobdan. Okay. B-O-B-D-A-N all together. Bobdan. Bobdan. Bobdan. Okay, there you go. It's not Bob Dan.

Unless the parents were lazy. They want to name him after grandpa and dad. Even though Bob Dan is a great name when you're mad. Bob Dan? Bob Dan? How many times have I told you?

Bob, damn it. Come on over here. All right. No, I said, why are you so angry? No, that's just my name. So, why are the origins of Big Bangs and universes still a mystery? It seems logical that the Big Bang births a new universe. Space times are simply black holes of other universes and space times. Mystery solved. Right? Yes.

There you go. Okay, next question. There we go. Bob damn. So back on my shelf, I got a book by Stephen Hawking. The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Okay. It's got some title like that. All right. And in it, it describes the physics and the mathematics inside the black hole. Okay. And as you go through, it basically opens up an entire space-time.

So inside a black hole is effectively a whole other universe, which leads us to wonder whether our universe is just inside of somebody else's black hole. Somebody else's black hole, correct. Look at that. And we have a horizon that you can't get out of. Right. And there's stuff beyond it, but you can't see it. So there are some strong similarities between thinking of the universe as a black hole and a black hole as a universe. Right. Ooh, that's poetic. That's poetic.

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This is StarTalk with Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson. All right, here we go. This is Colin Brock. Will a photon, from its frame of reference, be able to reach galaxies beyond our event horizon should a photon see time stop for the rest of the universe at the speed of light and therefore not experience, listen, the expansion of the universe along which it is traveling?

Wow. People are getting in. They're getting in. They're going in. Going all in. I'm telling you because bringing up a lot of stuff here, that's a layered question. All right. So we have to be careful here. Right. We will never see the photon exit the universe.

That's the whole point of what's going on here. The photon will move away and it gets swept up by the expansion of the universe and the energy coming back towards us against the expansion of the universe gets diluted until it disappears entirely. Okay. So we can't, at that point, it's beyond our horizon. We can't see it. Alright.

All right. As far as the photon is concerned, it's just happily doing its thing. It's just there. Right. It's just, it doesn't even know. It has no idea. No idea. It's just happily being. That's like the famous question with Albert Einstein. He said, if you're in a car driving at the speed of light and you turn on the headlights, what would you see? Right. Okay. Well, you can't go to the speed of light, but let's go 99.999999% the speed of light. You do that, you put on your headlights, you see your headlights. You see headlights.

Because that's it. It's going down the front. Everything is relative. It's at the speed of light. It's relative. You don't even know you're going at the speed of light. Exactly. Right. As far as you're concerned, everybody else is passing you by. Exactly. Yeah. Which made the awkward joke I told you when Relativity was published. That was at the New York Times. Somebody made a joke that, hey, Albert, what time does Grand Central Station arrive at the next train? Right. Right. So...

That's the same thing. So if you're the photon and you're at the edge, when you're at the edge, that's not your edge. Right. When you're at our edge, it's not your edge. Right. Any more than a ship going to your horizon, that's not that ship's horizon. Exactly. It sees beyond that. Exactly. Okay. Yeah, that makes perfect sense.

Right. And like I said, a photon will be absorbed in the same instant it was emitted in its own reference frame. I love thinking about it like a ship because that's so easy to envision. It works great. And you know the ocean goes beyond your horizon. Exactly. Right. Unless you're a stupid flat earther. In this case, you fall off the edge. Big dummy. What?

What you see beyond the horizon is your own ignorance, you stupid ass. Anyway. Chuck, this is a free country. People think whatever the hell they want. This is true. Okay. I don't have an issue with flat earthers. I just don't want them to become head of NASA or something like that. No. Plenty of jobs for them. Okay. If you want to think earth is flat. Right. Cleaning toilets is not a bad job. There's a lot of dignity in that as far as I'm concerned. Okay.

Anyway, this is Tasos Souris who says, "Greetings, Dr. Tyson. Tasos from Greece here. How would a civilization living in a planet that is surrounded by black holes from all sides perceive the universe?

Will we, from the outside, be able to see them, will they, live their own slowed acceleration timeframe? So a couple different questions. Yeah, yeah. So the closer you are to a source of gravity, the more time dilated your life becomes. Right. So you think you're living a normal life. People from outside see you living more slowly. Right. So we will see you living more slowly if those black holes are relatively near. Right. That's the first point. Second.

If you look out, you will see light bent around black holes. So you'll see all these rings. Right. These light rings. Because that's what the geometry of space-time does when you have a source of gravity and light passes around it. So...

So that's the main difference. The night sky will be these rings. Yeah. And Einstein said, he first predicted the existence of rings. They're called Einstein's rings. And then he thought things will never be so perfectly aligned to get a perfect ring. It'll never get a ring. And we get some rings, but generally what happens is if it's exactly aligned, you get a ring. If it's slightly off-center, it splits into two rings.

Two parts. Right. And then if it's off a little more, you can get four parts and then six. And so, but in the limit of a perfect alignment, you get a ring.

And so, yeah. Now, that would be dangerous if you're surrounded by black holes. I don't know how stable that orbit would be. Right. Yeah, exactly. Yeah. Because you're in a pinball machine at that point. At that point, you know, as they say, there's no such thing as gravity. Your planet sucks. The black holes suck. They'll suck you in. Right. All right.

Very cool. Thanks a lot there, Tassos. This is John Bidford. Says, good day, Dr. Tyson. Good day. That's what he says. Very Aussie. Okay. John Bidford here from Bolton, Massachusetts. The Big Bang. Did it disperse matter in all directions somewhat equally? If so, and the universe is expanding in all directions, what happens in the space where the Big Bang takes place?

happened. Ooh. Look at that. Isaac Newton, my man. Right. And I think I have a finger puppet of him back here. Never understood finger puppets because it's like... Yeah, now you've got to finger up Isaac Newton's iris. Oh, stop. That's basically what happens.

That's not what I was thinking. Oh, okay. I was thinking you can't control the hands or the face or the expression. Right. It's the lamest puppet. The lamest puppet. Even a sock puppet has more emoting than a finger puppet. And so, I think this is... And not William Herschel. I should check. But anyhow, it all looked alike back then.

Okay. It's a colonial era. All the bricks, they all look colonial. Put a powder wig on them. Who knows the difference, right? Just put your powder wig on and your buckle shoes and get to work. So, Isaac Newton argued that the universe must be infinite after he discovered his laws of gravity. Right. It must be infinite because if it's not, all the matter will find a center to fall to. And it would all fall to form one great heap of dust.

heap of mass. Okay. Okay. Okay? But it's an infinite, then there's no, one place is not more special than another. Right. Now, he didn't imagine that you can live in an expanding universe. Right. That was outside of his worldview. Expanding universe, you're not all going to fall to one spot because there's a force preventing that. Okay. In our case, we call it dark energy. So,

So with that, that place where the center occurred no longer exists in space. It only exists in time. In time. Right. So the timeline, if you go back to the beginning of time, on that axis, when you get there, all the matter will be in the same place. You go forward, the expansion of the universe, you don't have access to that point in that space.

So I'll give an example. So you have a balloon and you're inflating the balloon. Right. You start out, the balloon is like tiny. Yeah. Right? That's the big bang. Okay? Or the whole balloon is in one spot right there. Now you start blowing on it, it expands away from that spot. Right. Is that spot on the surface of the balloon? No.

It's in the center of the balloon. How do I get to the center of the balloon? Turn back time. The balloon gets smaller and smaller and smaller. Now you're back at the center. Right. So... You'd have to shrink the universe. By going backwards in time. By going backwards in time. Exactly. So the center exists, but not in the space coordinate. It exists in the time coordinate. There you go. Yeah. That's really... Deal with it. Yeah.

Wow, these people are asking really good questions, man. I got to tell you. This is not up his ass. He's got a jacket. He's got a red coat on. I don't know what jackets you wear, but at the hem of my jacket is my rectum. Now you ruined finger puppets for me. I don't want to play with finger puppets anymore. All right, what else you got?

We're getting through a lot of questions today. We are. More than usual. This is Ilyas Siametis. Ilyas Siametis. That does not sound right, but we'll go with it. You can put a little flavor in it. Ilyas. Ilyas Siametis. Okay, go. Dr. Tyson, Lord Nice, Ilyas here from London. London, Ontario? London, Connecticut? Hey man, it just says London. Is there a London, Ontario? I don't know.

It kind of feels like... It feels like there's a London everywhere. You know what that is? That's lazy-ass Brits coming to the New World. Where'd we come from? We came from London. Where are we now? London? London?

Why not? No, let's call it New London. New London. Now you have it. All right. So he says, would it be theoretically possible to break the bonds between atoms of something and reconfigure them into something else? Let's say manipulate the billions and billions of carbon atoms in a wooden chair and make a table instead. Strong emphasis on the word theoretically. Yeah.

Yeah, that's not interesting, though. Okay. To turn a wooden chair into a wooden table? You're not really manipulating atoms. You're just...

You're just reassembling the macroscopic wood. Right. That's all you're doing is taking the wood and moving it around. You're moving the wood around. Right. That's it. If you want to change molecules, do something fun. Right. Take your molecules and rearrange them and make an alien that's still alive, but it's not you. It's some other thing. Right. Do something interesting. If you're going to have power over molecules and atoms, then... Now, what chemists do is, because we don't have tools to pluck...

atoms and reattach them. We put them in vats

of other chemicals that make that happen. - Make a reaction. - Make a reaction. - Right. - And these are called catalysts. - Right. - Okay? I want this molecule and I got that molecule, put in a catalyst that makes that. - Boom. - Okay? And does that natively and naturally. So that's how we're doing that today. - Okay. - So yeah, do something better than a chair to a table. - Right. - And yeah, but in principle, you can turn it into anything organic. Because if you can use the molecules of life, that's organic chemistry. Why not make something else organic? - Mm, cool. - Yeah. - I love the idea.

Okay. Well, there you go, my friend. Yeah. All right. This is Aaron Turetsky.

Hey, Dr. Tyson, Lord Nice, Aaron here from Staten Island, NYC. All right. There you go. Okay. He goes, my question pertains to the way that we visually display Earth in globes, maps, and elsewhere. Since magnetic poles flip and the Earth's landmass are constantly shifting, is there any scientific reason that we decided Antarctica would be at the bottom of the South Pole? I understand that human civilization happens to exist while a majority of the

The land is in northern hemisphere, so our maps are northern biased. But what does science have to say? For example, if an alien civilization was to look at the Earth through their telescopes, is there any reason they would know that Battery Park is at the bottom of Manhattan? Oh! And not the top? Oh!

Wow. My man got a problem with globes. And plus he mentioned Battery Park because one way to get to Staten Island is through the Staten Island Ferry out of Battery Park. Yes. That was not a random reference, baby. Yeah, but who wants to go to Staten Island? What are you talking about? Come on, man. Stop. Let me save you from yourself here. All right, here we go. So what does science have to say about it? First of all, at the beginning of the film...

Happy feet. Okay. Where does that take place? It's penguins, so there's only one place it could take place. South Pole. South Pole. Penguins. Antarctica. Antarctica. The camera moves in on the earth. Right. Okay? Okay.

And of course, North Pole is up and South Pole is down. But this entire movie takes place at the South Pole. Right. So as far as they're concerned, that's where the action is. So you know what this movie does? Instead of going down to the South Pole, the entire frame rotates 180 degrees. Nice. And you go straight on in to Antarctica. Okay. That was a point of view shift. Wow.

Okay. You know who did that movie? This guy who wrote us? No. The same guy who did Mad Max. George Miller. The same guy who did Mad Max. A little departure from the Mad Max. He's got range. Yeah, he certainly does. So, anyhow. So, scientifically, we use the right-hand rule.

Okay. Okay. So, stick out your right hand. Right. Palm open. Palm open. Now, curl your fingers. Keep your thumb up. Thumb up. Okay. Any object that's rotating in the universe, if you curl your fingers in the direction it's rotating, your thumb is the North Pole. That's the North Pole. Yes. For any object anywhere. Correct. Okay. If you want your thumb to stick in the direction of the North Pole, you have to use your left hand. Oh, that's okay. So, the right hand rule is right hand,

Thumbs up. That's how you know what North Pole is. And if you know what North Pole is, you know what South Pole is. You know what South Pole is. Okay, gotcha. Okay? Okay. So yes, of course we are North biased, but there is at least consistency with all maps show North. Okay. North up. All right. All right? It's pretty cool. I'm going to tell you the truth.

I don't care. He mentioned the magnetic pole. When I grew up, how old I am, the magnetic pole was in the northern territories of Canada. Wow. But it's been shifting. It's been shifting, right? Yeah, because the North Pole is a wandering thing. And right now it's passing the North Geographic Pole. Wow.

Okay. It's just closer to that than it's ever been before. And it's headed towards Siberia. There you go. So it's actually where it belongs, where we say it is. Right now, it's near the North Pole. It's near the North Pole. It's near the North Pole. And Putin is going to have control over the North Pole. Well, then say goodbye to the magnetic field, people.

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Speaking of Putin. No. Okay. Mille says this. Hey, Neil. Hey, Chuck. My name is Mille. I'm from Macedonia, Balkan, Europe, world. I like that. Okay. Yeah, that's very cool. He says, we see a lot of matter goes into energy in the universe, but do we see the other way around energy becoming matter?

Yes. Oh. Oh, yeah. Well, yeah. Okay. Yeah. Okay. So, in the sun, in the center of the sun, there's thermonuclear fusion, hydrogen nuclei merge. Right. Okay. So, here's what happens. Ready? A hydrogen only has one particle in its nucleus. Right. A proton. So, there's just protons there. So, one proton merges.

meets another proton. Hey, how you doing? Okay. What's up? There you go. How you doing? Right. Okay. Now, protons have like charge. Right. So like charges do what? They don't like each other. They repel. That's right. So in order for them to get close together, they have to be moving so fast that their speed overcomes their repulsion. And they're so close to each other that a whole new force that's strong has to kick in. You know what we call that? An arranged wedding. That's right.

We call it the strong force. The strong force. Sensibly titled, the strong force. Okay. In that moment, one of those protons becomes a neutron. Oh. It transmutes. Look at that. So you have a proton and a neutron. I don't need that woke atom in my life. So what? Transitions. Transitioning atoms. Who needs that? Oh. So. Go ahead. Wait a minute. We started with a positive charge. Right. Okay.

Now there's a neutral charge. What happened to the positive charge? You can't just pocket that. Right. Okay? A particle comes out carrying away that charge. Okay. It's the antimatter version of an electron. Whoa. It's called a positron. A positron. Okay? Now, this is a soup of ionized atoms. And when you're ionized, electrons are flying everywhere. If you're a positron... Right.

And your anti-matter positron, if you see an electron, that's all she wrote. You annihilate. Look at that. Instantly. Instantly. Creating energy in the center of the sun. Look at that. That's one of many ways the sun is generating energy in the core. Wow. That happens every moment of every day. Two particles of matter coming together and creating pure energy. Positron in the electron, in the core of the sun.

That is amazing. So, yeah, but it doesn't happen around the house. No, no. But it would... If you had a son. A son, S-U-N. Right. Yes. So, now watch. Not that lazy guy that's on the couch playing video games all day long. Is that what your son does? That sounded too close to home, Chuck. With your 17-year-old son? Yeah, exactly. So... So...

Here's the thing. Light that we use, visible light. Visible light. If you look up how much energy a red light photon has or a blue light photon, just look at how much energy that is. There is no particle that can be made with that much energy because it's not enough. Okay. So light, visible light stays visible light its whole life. Wow.

Increase the energy up to beyond ultraviolet into X-rays. Now ask yourself, what is the energy of an X-ray photon? It's about the energy of an electron. So you can have a field of X-ray photons with electrons spontaneously being created within it. Okay. But you can't just create a particle out of nothing.

You also have to have the antiparticle. Right. Okay. So if you create electrons, you're also creating what? The positron. The positron. Right. There you go. So that's energy becoming matter. Right. Look at that. That's the inverse of that that he was asking me about. Yeah, exactly. And then they find each other again and they become matter. This soup was going on in the early universe in every cubic centimeter of the universe. Look at that. Matter going back and forth until the universe cooled. Right. Where none of the photons left.

Had enough energy to make particles. Oh, Lord, I'm so tired. And we froze out the total number of particles in the universe in that moment. Look at that. No longer could you make more particles. That's it. That's it.

That's great. This is like the first three minutes of the Big Bang. Wow. That's so fun. There's a lot going on. Oh, man. Yeah. Three minutes. That's the first three minutes. Look at that. That's amazing. So in my book, Astrophysics for People in a Hurry, the first chapter, it was something like in the beginning or something, or it begins with that. Right. And I take you through those details. Mm-hmm.

The conversion of matter, energy, and it cools down. All that's happened. That's very cool. Very aggressive, the title, In the Beginning. I'm just saying that association is... Well, where else am I going to begin the story but in the beginning? This is true, you know. I'm just saying that those words kind of bring to mind something else. That's an old joke from elementary school. What's that?

How do you know God was a baseball player? I've never heard of this. Because he began it in the big inning.

That's a rough one, man. Even God is just like, let me handle the humor. The humor. He's like, stick to prayer. Humor is my thing. Okay. Sit this one out. Yeah. All right. Chuck, we got time for like one more, I think. All right, here we go. Let's go with Andrew Coffey. And Andrew Coffey says, good day, Dr. Tyson and Lord Nice. Wait.

Wishing you a wonderful wisdom from a few fine fellows. Andy C. here from British Columbia. All right. That would be Canada. That's right. I've always wondered, how did we first calculate the speed of light in a vacuum? And how do we know it's a constant? Is it possible we could be wrong? Ooh. Speed of light in a vacuum. Yes. Okay. So...

Galileo is the first one known to try to measure the speed of light. Look at that.

Wow. So he put somebody on... What an ambitious dude he was. That dude was ambitious. My man. Yeah. He's my man Galileo. At night, he put somebody on a mountaintop with a lantern and a little shutter. Right. Okay. And he was on another mountaintop with a lantern and a shutter. And they said, when you see one... Give it back to me. Give me the signal back with the shutter. And he concluded...

I'm paraphrasing. He concluded, light, if it's not infinitely fast, it's faster than we can measure. Okay? Nice job. Just tell it like it is. That's all you know. Yeah, that's it. That's what we know right now. Can't tell more than what you can know. There you go. Okay. So, the coolest measurement of the speed of light

Do you know the distance from Earth to the sun? 93 million. Okay, so twice that is? 186 million miles. Miles, okay. Keep that number in your head. Okay. That's the baseline of Earth's orbit around the sun. All right. Okay, okay.

A guy named Ol' Roamer. Okay. Ol' Roamer. He's got one of those umlauts with the O-E. Okay. They just called him Ol' Roam back then. Ol' Roam. Hey. What's up, Ol' Roam? We can't pronounce your name. We just call you Ol' Roam. Ol' Roam. No. Ol' Roamer. Okay. At the time he did this, we knew...

That the Newtonian gravity not only described the moon around Earth, Earth around the sun, it described Jupiter's moons around Jupiter. Okay. So you didn't have to be the sun to be the center of gravity for a system. It worked for Jupiter too. So this was a testament to the universality of Newton's laws. Because if it just works for the Earth and moon, maybe it's just Earth-moon. You don't know that it works everywhere else. It works everywhere else. All right. So...

You calculate when the moons pass in front of and behind Jupiter. Okay. What he found was that when Earth was closest to Jupiter, the eclipses occurred a thousand seconds sooner than when Earth was on the opposite side of the sun from Jupiter. Okay. He said either Newton's laws are wrong or we had to wait.

for the light to cross the entire orbit of the Earth to get to you. Because on the backside of Earth, it was a thousand second delay compared to the front of your orbit. Right. So, what's the formula for speed? Distance divided by time. What's the distance? 186 million. What's the time? A thousand seconds. What is the speed of light?

Uh, very fast. Very, very fast. Take those two numbers, you divide them, 186,000 miles per second. That was the first... Now, we didn't have the diameter of the Earth. The guy had the wrong number for that. But it was the first...

It was the most accurate estimate of the speed of light yet to be made. And I think because we didn't have, there were some uncertainties in Earth's distance to the sun, but it was in the right ballpark for this. That's the first measurement of the speed of light. That's cool. Okay? Just the delay in the eclipses of Jupiter's orbits. Right. Depending on where you are in our orbit when you're taking a look at them. And the numbers turn out all nice and even, right? 186 million miles, 1,000 seconds, everything was clean and easy.

Now, we're sophisticated. We can measure it in a laboratory. We can do what Galileo attempted to do. Sure enough, we get the same number. Look at that. Okay? Every time we've ever measured the speed of light, we get exactly the same number. At all times. At all times. Correct. And we look in other parts of the universe where we see phenomenon happening, speed of light's the same. Right on up to the edge of the universe.

So our evidence, and since as you look out in the universe, you look back in time, we can say with confidence that the speed of light is the same and unchanging across space and through the depths of time. Look at that. It is the most fundamental constant of nature we know. Yes. It is so fundamental that we define the length of the meter in terms of the speed of light. Wow.

Okay. So if we make an extra measurement of a decimal place in the speed of light, that affects the length of the meter. That's how badass the speed of light is. Right. It's running the show. Look at that. So a meter is how far a beam of light goes in 1 30 millionth of a second. It's the right to 12 decimal places. 12 decimal places. Wow. Yeah.

That is super cool. Yeah. Now, the speed of light is different in the air and in water and in a diamond. But in the vacuum, that's the speed. That's the speed. And 186,282 miles per second. Wow. Or three times 10 to the eighth meters per second. But it's really two... It's like 29,999,000... We round that up. It's a nice rounding to...

3 times 10 to the 8th. So that would be 300,000 kilometers per second. Okay. And now you make meters and centimeters out of that. Right, right. But it's really like 299,000 something. It's close, but we round it up to 300,000 kilometers a second. 186,282 miles per second. There you go. Yeah. But the best measurement of it is Muhammad Ali. Oh, yes. Yes.

Take us out with Muhammad Ali. I'm fast, I tell you. I'm so fast, I turn the light switch off, I'm in the bed before the room gets dark. Oh! Okay, Muhammad Ali is faster than the speed of light. There you go. That's evidenced by that very important data point right there. All right, Chuck, that's all the time we have. That was fun. A lot of fun. Oh, oh, grab bag. Grab bag. Grab bag. Or galactic gumbo.

In the Cosmic Crib. Because we're back live in my office. That's right. At the Hayden Planetarium. All good here. We're done with this latest episode of Cosmic Query. Thanks for joining us. Neil deGrasse Tyson. People are good now.