The Mysteries of Easter Island
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In the heart of the Pacific Ocean, over 2,000 miles from the nearest continental landmass, lies one of the world's most iconic archaeological treasure troves. They're on Rapa Nui, known to the outside world as Easter Island. Now most of us are familiar with the towering stone faces of the Moai that gaze inland across that windswept volcanic landscape.

These giant monolithic figures are the last sentinels of a once thriving society. Rapa Nui was first settled by Polynesians about a thousand years ago after one of the greatest voyages of discovery in history. But it then became isolated from the rest of the world and in isolation those settlers built a rich and complex culture. It was rooted in ancestor worship, astronomy and ritual. But then something happened. The forests vanished. The Moai were toppled.

And for centuries, the collapse of the society has been the subject of really fierce debate. Was it an ecological catastrophe brought on by the people, by deforestation, by overpopulation? Or is there a more nuanced story of resilience and adaptation in the face of outside interference, contact with the rest of the world?

Joining me today on Dan Snow's History Hit to explore the island's extraordinary past, we've got James Grant Peterking. He's a cultural historian, someone who's lived and worked on the island for over 20 years. You can watch this episode on our YouTube channel. Every Friday, we release a new filmed episode. You can find the link in our show notes. But for those of you sticking with audio only, this is a story of discovery and human ingenuity and survival and adaptation in one of the most remote places on Earth. Enjoy.

T-minus 10. The Thomas bomb dropped on Hiroshima. God save the king. No black-white unity till there is first and black unity. Never to go to war with one another again. And lift off, and the shuttle has cleared the tower. James, thanks so much for coming on. Thank you for having me. Shockingly, given this is a history podcast, we're going to start with some geography. Give us a sense of just how remote this island is.

So Easter Island, or Rapa Nui to give it its Polynesian name, it's one of the most isolated inhabited islands anywhere on the planet. Two and a half thousand miles off the west coast of South America, halfway between Chile and French Polynesia.

But perhaps to put it in real terms, it takes five and a half hours to fly there from the nearest international airport. Okay. And is it significant, apart from the statues, but is it significant because it's sort of at the end? People might think about the Pacific as this long spray of islands going right across. But Easter Island is right at the end of that, is it? It is. So it's the easternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. So Easter Island is really the culmination of this incredible human settlement that took place over...

at least 5,000 years, that meant that humans ultimately settled pretty much every habitable island in the Pacific. Okay, we're going to come on to that voyaging, but does that mean they inhabited it sort of last? Did it take the longest time to get there? Yes. So the generally accepted theory is that New Zealand was the very last one, Aotearoa, when the Maori eventually arrived in about 1200. But it seems that prior to that and just shortly before then, humans also reached Easter Island as well. Okay, so you spent a long time there.

I spent more than 20 years living there. I love it. Just tell me the story of how you arrived there in the first place. So I was on a year between school and university. I needed to learn Spanish, so I went to Chile.

People took one look at me and spoke to me in English. I couldn't get any Spanish. I can't imagine why. I thought you just looked like a local. I know. And then suddenly this opportunity came to go to Easter Island to work. And I thought, this is it. It was a place I'd been fascinated by as a child. And I suddenly thought this is the opportunity to actually go and not just visit, but to live there. And so I spent four months there, I think, and I was absolutely captivated.

And when you were there, I'm not suggesting you're very old, but was it perhaps not super developed for tourism and visiting? It wasn't. I mean, this was 1996, so it was a while back. And no, I couldn't believe it. The island was surprisingly underdeveloped for tourism.

And it just seemed there was this absolute goldmine in terms of archaeology, history, culture, and no one was coming to see it. I couldn't believe it. Okay, we're going to get onto the island itself. One of my favourite topics in world history is the maritime expansion of the Polynesian people. Yeah, their navigation, their technology. These people spread across. These islands are uninhabited until fairly recently. Where did the Polynesians come from?

So the general consensus is that they came from Taiwan. Oh, interesting, isn't it? And that about 6,000 years ago, a seafaring people embarked from Taiwan on their canoes and slowly, gradually began exploring the islands to the east of there. So 6,000 years, that's when passage tombs are being built around Britain, for example. Stonehenge is not far off. And yet until that point, there's no human settlement on these islands at all. No, the entire Pacific, as far as we know, is uninhabited.

And therefore they had an absolutely blank canvas to go out there and explore and settle. And what were the technological hacks that they had? The boat building, the astronomy, how did they do that?

So it seems to be obviously a mix of an enormous number of factors. They introduced the outrigger, this idea of stabilising these large canoes. Right, so a canoe with outriggers like a bit that sort of sticks off the side. On one side or sometimes on both sides. So that gives you greater stability. With a sort of almost like a mini canoe at either side. Exactly. So if you think of a trimaran today, but it's actually much smaller on either side. It's where you stick your young kids when you're on holiday and they sort of cling on. Exactly, exactly.

But it was more than that. It was the understanding of the constellations, of the environment around them, that enabled them to really carve these almost sort of highways down the ocean that meant that by using the stars, by using certain particular constellations or the sun and the moon, they were able to actually mark routes down which they could navigate down, but also come home as well. And they had these techniques, they could tell...

when a wave had hit a seashore and then was like reflecting back. So even if you couldn't see the shore, you sort of went, hang on a second, I think we're near an island. All these little things that they were able to notice. So it's the ability to sense changes in swell and in current and things like that. So if you think you've got an obstacle in the water far ahead of you, but long before you can see it,

that obstacle will actually create the way in which the water moves around it. And to an experienced Polynesian navigator, he or she will be able to actually sense that. They couldn't see it, but they could apparently feel it. So that they would lie in the middle of the canoe and actually with their body feel the motion of the ocean. And by that, they would know that there was something or possibly something up ahead that was changing the shape of that swell. I mean, that's just one example of the dozens of techniques that they had

that helped them to therefore find these islands. And what I love about it is because of the relative lateness of European exploitation into that world, we've actually been able to save some of those oral traditions and those stories. We sort of, modern scholarship has been able to write them down. So we do have that connection with the past. We actually know, which isn't say true of the Vikings, we actually really do know how they were able to use the stars. Well, exactly. So having had this prolonged period of isolation from the rest of the world...

You ended up with this incredibly robust oral history. It meant that when the Europeans did arrive in sort of 17th, 18th century onwards, that they'd already found very established societies, established communities who had these traditions very much inherent in their culture.

in their practice, in their upbringing. Okay, talk to me about some of these distances. Once they'd gone to these places, did they then become sort of isolated? Or were they cruising about between Hawaii and Papua New Guinea? Is this a real trading and exchange system in this Pacific? I think to a certain degree, yes. I mean, unlikely to have been from one corner of the Polynesian Triangle to the other, but...

If you think of, for example, the Hawaiian islands, of which you've got at least half a dozen sizable islands, they, of course, will be trading with each other. And so if you were missing, say, obsidian or wood or gene pool or something you needed to acquire, then, of course, you could do it from a neighboring island. And that's why when you look at the map of the Pacific, you can actually almost kind of group it together into these clusters of islands.

The big exception to all of this is Easter Island, where there is nothing else around it. And that's why it becomes this exception, even in Polynesia. So it takes five hours to fly there, even today, if there are human beings there. So someone got on a boat and just took off into the horizon and arrived at Easter Island. I mean, extraordinarily. Does that imply that lots of people went off in all sorts of different directions and never came back?

I think we have to assume that this was needle in a haystack stuff. And of course, you never hear about the ones that failed.

Yes, they had a system where they would sail up to the halfway point. It's believed of their food and water and things like that. If they hadn't then found land by then, they could turn around. And by having gone against the prevailing winds and currents, generally in this easterly direction, they could turn around and then get home. As long as their map reading was fine, they could get home in a faster time. So they're sending out these scouting parties over hundreds of miles of ocean.

Because I think common sense says you wouldn't load up an enormous great canoe with women and children and plants and animals and everything you need to begin a new society.

if you don't already know that there is definitely an island that you're going to that you've pinpointed and marked. And so these scouts, and these are the unsung heroes of Polynesia, if you like, because these were the people that were going out and having to try and find these remote islands. How does their culture, how does their religion, music culture sort of underpin the sort of bravery and professionalism needed to sustain those expeditions?

Well, certainly on Easter Island, I mean, they still have, certainly in the songs that they sing, vivid accounts of that first voyage of the first king that set foot on the island. And so there is certainly a recognition that these voyages were absolutely pioneering in their nature. I think the Scouts are the one group that perhaps don't get the recognition that they deserve.

because like a lot of things, you only remember the winners. And we talk about this drive to discover new islands. Is that because population grows, everything just gets a bit young and bored, men and women go, let's go and start our own thing somewhere else. And is there just a culture of expansion or are they being forced off by shortages of food and resource? I think it's a real mix. I think in some cases, yes, you've got overpopulation on small islands, lack of resources, you need to move on to a new island.

Intertribal warfare features a lot in Polynesian oral history. So if two factions are fighting, clearly the losing faction probably has to find a new home to live in.

But what's amazing is that even on islands where seemingly they were living in relative harmony and lack of diseases, things like that, there is still this human drive, which is wonderful because we see it even today, this human drive to get out there and discover what's over the horizon and the fact that you could be living happily on your island. But many people have this inherent curiosity about.

to get out there and see whether it's to go and travel to another country as we're fortunate enough to do today, or in the case of the Polynesians, to get out there and literally go and discover what was beyond what they could see. It's just wild. So Rapa Nui, Easter Island, it's the furthest end of the chain. So what date do we think people arrived there? About 1000 AD, so about 1000 years ago. Okay.

And are there traditions of names, people that arrived? They know the first king, Hotumatu'a, who was the first king to apparently lead this party of people to the island. But what's so interesting about Easter Island is you don't then hear about subsequent voyages. And so it seems to be almost this closing of the door behind them when this first group arrived. So they do get quite isolated after that. Yes. And that's why if we take it to the extreme, it's perhaps 700 years of isolation.

until the Europeans arrive and discover for Europe this particular island in the South Pacific. And so it must be so fascinating for you as a historian to look at how Easter Island culture, Rapa Nui culture differs from the Maori in New Zealand or other islands. Do they branch away quite rapidly?

Well, it's one of these things where you've got this sort of common ancestor. And so you've got the culture has a center to it in modern day, say, French Polynesia. And then as you go to the other islands in the region, you start to see bits that, of course, look identical. And then you see bits that are completely different. And I was always interested in the language. I mean, my studies were in the linguistics of the island.

And so it was fascinating to go to, say, New Zealand and work out that if you changed certain letters, the Rapa Nui that you speak on Easter Island was still remarkably similar to New Zealand Maori. And just how far away is that? We're talking... 6,000 miles away or something. So, I mean, it's distances that are just unfathomable in any other part of the world if it wasn't the Pacific Ocean, where the scale is just, you know, everything is off the scale.

You mentioned earlier that they're taking women, children, this is a community on the move. How about plants and are they stocking ponds with fish? I mean, is there a whole suite of tools and resources they need to sustain themselves? So it seems that much of the expertise of the scouts wasn't solely in finding these islands. It was working out what was there and what was missing. And so with this information, they would come back to the homeland, wherever that was, and

and then load up these large double-hulled ocean-voyaging canoes with not just a genetically viable human population, but also actually then plants that they felt they would need, and also species of animals that they thought would be beneficial for their survival on this new virgin land because it's untouched. Speaking of genetics and things, have they done the DNA and worked out how many...

mating pairs of humans arrived on that island? The oral history says two large ocean-going canoes, and that's possibly maybe a maximum of 80 people on each one. It's enough to get us started. It's enough to start. But clearly, and this is where, again, other islands had the benefit that if your gene pool is starting to get a bit thin, you can then go on date nights to other islands. One of the many amazing success stories of Easter Island is the fact that they seemingly didn't have this contact with any other island before.

and therefore just how strict they had to be in keeping families separate, first cousins from, you know... Oh, there were protocols. I'm sure there were, because there are even to this day. You sometimes have young couples that will get together and then suddenly a grandparent will come along and say, actually, you can't go out with that person. Because, yeah. So on a small island, you can control these things. In a larger community, it would be much more difficult. Grandparents always get a grandparent. Exactly. So what's the soil like on the island?

It's surprisingly good because it's volcanic soil, but it's volcanic soil that, I mean, the island parts of it are three million years old. So it's this great eruption from the sea floor.

The island is therefore just the top of a volcano, really. And so once that soil, as long as it's not overused, that soil is relatively good. The problem, of course, is if you use it too intensively in a short period of time, then of course then... And they had the fishing. They could sustain themselves with the sea as well. Yes. So I mean, that's really why it's believed that the first Polynesians that arrived there would have seen this island as almost a kind of Polynesian Garden of Eden.

And for that reason, perhaps raised the drawbridge behind them because they thought, you know, we've got everything we need here. And in a way, we almost don't therefore either need to go home again or we don't want others arriving here. So it was this almost well-kept secret in the corner of the Pacific.

And did it remain homogenous? I mean, there was a king. Was there a succession? Do you see different tribes and groups? Does it become fractured? So it fractures off into family groups, which I think is normal. So they divide the island up into 10, the equivalent of pieces of cake, so that everyone gets a bit of coastline. Everyone has perhaps the agricultural land in the center of the island.

And by that system, over generations and over centuries, they maintain this idea of different tribes. But of course, it's highly cooperative. They're all working with each other. They share the one quarry where the iconic statues were carved.

So it's not, certainly at that point in the history, this idea of sort of tribes, it sometimes sounds a bit, it was really distinct family groups. Is this a good time to come onto the statues? There's never a better time to come onto the statues. So these, the Rapa Nui statues, East Rhine statues that are so iconic. First of all, I've never seen them. What are they like in the flesh?

They're amazing. I mean, it sounds a bit cliched, but there's an incredible energy when you wander around, particularly the quarry where they were all carved. Because the treat on Easter Island, it's not just the end product that you get to see. So you don't just get to see the sort of end of production. You can still to this day go to the quarry.

and see literally etchings onto the rock, half-finished carvings, some moai is the name of the statues, some moai that have been completed but haven't yet been transported. And so you can really follow the whole process from start to finish. So it's like they just put their tools down and walked away. It's literally as if someone pulled the plug out of the factory floor and everything stopped at that point. Actually, so you've got the quarry with all these moai and different levels of completeness. How many other of these giant statues are there around the island?

So there's about a thousand. A thousand! People often underestimate the scale that the Moai production took on Easter Island because it's easy to think that it might have just been a few slightly crazed carvers who wanted to do something different. But in fact, you realize that this was an island-wide obsession.

And the entire community would have been involved either directly in the carving or in being the backup to actually making sure that the carvers had stone and food and everything else. And you've got to move them around. And the transportation becomes an enormous undertaking as well.

And how far do they move? What distance are we talking? So, I mean, the island isn't particularly large. It takes about one hour to drive around the island today. But to transport a Moai, you're probably looking at a maximum of 20 miles, which is not insignificant. Because they weigh... Up to 100 tonnes. What are you talking about? The ones that have been moved, yeah. 100 tonnes? Yeah.

And no horses or elephants. I mean, this was all done by... Human power. Human power. And this is why you get the UFO stuff coming in, because people can't bear the fact that humans might at one day have been capable of doing this. And did they roll them on logs? Do they know about wheels and logs and things? So there's really, there's two schools of thought. One is basically the rolling, which is the idea of placing it onto some kind of sled and then dragging it over rollers to therefore reduce the friction.

Or that they might have been rocked in a way that if you think of, you know, at home, if you're moving a heavy piece of furniture, you might get it onto its corners and kind of waddle it from side to side. And it probably was a combination of both techniques, if not others as well, that archaeologists still haven't quite worked out. But this is one of the many mysteries on Easter Island that's still very much being argued about by archaeologists. And why?

Well, because this was the deep-rooted belief in Polynesia, and it's not just in Easter Island, but it's across the entire Polynesian Triangle, that important people possessed manna. So this was a spiritual power that was bestowed on them by the gods, and that therefore when an important person like that died…

what you wanted was a physical representation of them in order that this manor would still exist after their death. So it's actually a fairly human idea. But the idea was that because on Easter Island there was this incredible stone quarry, they had all of the raw materials needed, this culture of carving representations or idols to represent these important ancestors, it developed in a way that it couldn't possibly have developed anywhere else in the Pacific.

So do you think they are all of actual individuals or are they all a reflection of those mythical founders? No, no. I think real people because when, for example, when Cook came in 1774, people were all

People actually told him the names of some of the statues that he was standing in front of in the same way that you or I might in our homes or in our offices have the portrait of an ancestor, the founding statue of Nelson. I do have my home. Right.

But there was this belief that these statues were more than just a representation. They actually were the spiritual embodiment of this person. And so that's why, this is really why, and this is going off on a bit of a tangent, but this is why the whole repatriation of Moai that has been in the news recently, particularly with the British Museum and things like that, this is why for the Rapa Nui, the people of Easter Island today, this is much more than just a statue. This is much more than just...

part of their history. For them, this is a living ancestor. And so this is why it's always been quite difficult acting as kind of intermediary between sometimes the island and organisations such as the British Museum to sometimes convey this idea that what we might see as simply a piece of rock that is an important part of one island's history, that for the islanders that might have a much more significant meaning to them.

Listen to Dan Snow's history. Talk about Rapa Nui, Easter Island. More coming up.

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Now, there's been a really interesting, quite exciting sort of historical debate, historiographical debate about Rapa Nui, about whether it was sort of torn apart by civil wars, that it'll topple the statues, and whether that was when the Europeans arrived or after or before. Try and give me a timeline here. What do you think was going on in the culture of Rapa Nui in, say, 1700, before Europeans were even dreamed of?

So I think we have probably in 700 years of complete isolation, which is why it's such an interesting experiment, really, in the way in which humans behave in such an unusual set of circumstances. So by 1700, it seems that you've had this enormous rise in production of statues and

population has grown, no threats or attacks from outside, no diseases brought in from any outsiders. So you've got a population that's thriving, if not getting almost too large for the island.

But of course, when they've had the wood to build canoes, they've carried on searching for new islands around Easter Island. It's just that we know today from looking at a map that there aren't any. But they would have believed that over the horizon, there would have been other islands for them to settle. So they wouldn't have therefore been perhaps overly concerned.

by this rising population, lack of resources. They clearly weren't stupid. They weren't ignorant of what was going on on their island, but they must have always thought there was going to be this escape route. You think scouts were going out and coming back? I'm sure they were, because there's no reason for them to believe they'd reached the end of what today we call the Polynesian Triangle.

And was there enough wood for those canoes? Did you start to get deforestation? Well, deforestation clearly happens, yes, at the beginning when they need to clear land to plant on. And subsequently, with the moving of statues that weigh upwards of 100 tonnes, you need some kind of wood, you need fibre for ropes, etc.

Carving a statue was incredibly resource heavy, if you like. And so this was not something that, unless you had a very active management of the resources, this was clearly something that was going to put pressure on those finite resources. And so there is a school of thought that says the whole thing sort of collapses because of that overpopulation. Where are we now? Where's scholarship now on this? The jury is still very much out over this.

But clearly, at one time, the population was notably higher than then when the Europeans found it from 1722 onwards, which is the first contact with any outsiders, seemingly, that the Rapa Nui have in the best part of 700 years. So we think that even before the Europeans arrived, there had been some sort of population crash, but the population got smaller. I think so, because it depends who you read. But we have to therefore go by the accounts of the first Europeans.

who describe an impoverished island, a deforested island. And we know that that couldn't have been the case in a society that several hundred years prior had created up to a thousand statues of enormous proportions. So your impression is that that quarry, for example, that's abandoned seemingly sort of overnight...

That's probably not the European topsails appearing over their eyes, and that was probably some event on the island. The dating suggests that the abandonment of the quarry took place at least 50 years before the Europeans arrived. This is an internal strife. This is an internal problem. And for some reason, someone's come along and said, we're not carving a single other Moai statue out of this quarry. Tools are downed. They walk out of there and never come back. And that's why it's this incredible vestige of human achievement.

And when the Europeans arrived, they, I mean, are you sure that's not just Europeans just being dismissive of every culture they come across, but they're saying it's impoverished, that they specifically aren't seeing evidence of healthy, thriving sort of agricultural communities? I mean, Captain Cook, who was, I think we can generally accept, had understood the Pacific, he understood Polynesia. He wrote that it was the least attractive island and the least beneficial island to ships that he'd ever come across in that part of the world.

Roggeveen, who's the Dutch captain who arrives on Easter Sunday in 1722, hence the naming of the island. His cook laments the fact that there's no wood on the island for him to even light a fire with. So, I mean, these are snippets of details that as long as we trust the authorship of them,

We have to accept that the island they came across was not this thriving island that had been the case one, two hundred years prior to that. It's a reasonable assumption is that it had been denuded by just over-farming, over-grazing, trees being cut down, too many humans. Yes. Too much pressure. It becomes this classic case of what Jared Diamond would then call the collapse, this idea that societies will reach a breaking point.

After which, if there hasn't been successful management of resources, if populations aren't controlled, then it's simply the entire society descends into ecocide. So this ecological suicide where you basically destroy the one environment that you have to live in.

And do you see any more evidence of this talk about the Moai being toppled over and things? Is there any other clues on the island about what might have happened around that time? Studies of skulls, in particular bone studies, have shown that people were suddenly dying from blunt instruments instead of natural causes.

which is the volcanic glass that used to be a key component in carving the statues, suddenly becomes shaped in spearheads and arrowheads and things like that. So again, that would suggest a collapse of this very organized... Quite suggestive. Things might have got...

and mentioned in the oral history of cannibalism. So, I mean, clearly there's been a shift, and no one denies that that shift took place on Easter Island. I think what's interesting to study today is the exact time scale and the causes, and that's really where archaeologists are arguing about. Is the suggestion that the first European ships, they might have brought disease or there could be other... They would have done. I mean, they would have brought... Sailors will bring...

certain things with them. And that would have been the case on Easter Island, you wouldn't have had any defences against those kinds of diseases. I mean, even on Easter Island 50 years ago, there used to be such limited contact with the outside world, that when a ship would come to the island, people would say that everyone got a cold for the next week or so, because that was just germs from outside that they didn't have any exposure to, and any defences against.

And so the arrival of Roggeveen in 1722, but then there's 50 years until the next Europeans arrive. So it's incredibly spread out. And therefore, I find it difficult to believe people who think, put the blame entirely on Europeans who say that everything was perfect, the Europeans arrived, and then everything just collapsed. And I think that in that you've got three visitors in the first 60 years there. Yeah.

That sounds slightly far-fetched. Although in the 18th century, it appears to be a slightly more impoverished island, people were still living there, even without wood. So how were they surviving?

Well, so this is one of the great success stories that the human population on Easter Island never disappears, as sometimes the slightly lazier literature about the island will say. And so what they did was they made these dramatic changes in their lifestyle, really, to ensure, first of all, that humans survived. And the most notable of that is that they stopped carving the statues. And that's why they abandoned that quarry overnight and never came back to it.

And so they replace their religious beliefs with a competition that focuses on collecting birds' eggs. You can see that it would have taken a period of perhaps people not all being convinced by this, but on a small island, changes can happen quickly. And so suddenly if the elders and the priests are all suddenly saying, no, manna now comes in the form of these migratory birds that arrive once a year and lay an egg, and therefore we'll have a competition between all the tribes, you'll each put your greatest Olympian forward and

And he will compete against the other tribes to become the person to obtain that first egg by swimming across a mile and a half of open ocean, probably waiting in caves on that islet. Watch a little off-lying islet. Yes. And then as soon as someone gets the first sooty turn egg, that person's chief becomes what we call the bird man. And he becomes the spiritual political leader of the island for the next 12 months. And then we'll come back again next spring and we'll do the whole thing again.

And for about 150 years, this system, that is the dominant leadership election system. It's fascinating. That's amazing. So they start foraging. I guess there's still fish in the sea, thank goodness for them. But it's focused less on crops and more on what they can find on the seashore and in the ocean.

Yes. So you've got to now a diminished population in terms of its number. You've got one perhaps much more conscious of the fact that they now need to survive entirely by themselves, that they can't rely on neighboring islands or the arrival of outsiders. Yes, when you get the arrival of Europeans, you're going to get some trading and things like that.

So it's really why the island has always maintained this resilience, but also this ability to look after itself. And that's why even in something as recently as COVID, you know, where the island closed down for two and a half years, it was almost like the islanders went back to 100 years ago, where they suddenly had to be entirely self-sufficient. More on Easter Island, more on Rapa Nui coming up after this.

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Let's talk more about those European arrivals. Dutch expedition in the 1720s, you mentioned? Yep, so 1722, Jacob Roggeveen, and they site the island on Easter Sunday. Right, hence the name Easter Island. Stay for a while or get going? No bad conditions in the sea. Stay for the best part of a day, really. So, and this is why these first contacts were so...

They were so brief that, again, to believe that they might have had an inherent... They would, of course, have affected the islanders in a profound way, but to say that they would have really... Totally collapsed civilization. Exactly. I think it's far-fetched. Okay, then we get a Spanish expedition. In 1770. And then Captain Cook off the... In 1774. And does that... Do things start to get more regular after that? Is it on the map? No.

So it's now on the map because, of course, these drawings and paintings of these colossal statues find their way back to Europe. People are very struck with those straight away, are they? This is something unusual. The equivalent of a viral photograph today. I think, you know, people are, what on earth is it? They first of all don't expect there to be an island there in the first place. When they find the island, they're amazed that it's inhabited. And of course, then when they get up close to the coastline and see these enormous statues dotted all around the coastline, they're

then Europeans don't know what to make of Easter Island. And hence, therefore, a few more visitors come. But again, it's so isolated that unless you're in that part of the Pacific, it's not that you're going to make a side trip from New Zealand to go there. So after Captain Cook, do we have a clear sense of the ships that passed, how much contact they were having with Europeans?

Well, so it seems to be a noteworthy stop for people that are crossing the Pacific if they do call in. And that's why we're able to, at least in terms of population numbers, have an idea. The number of inhabitants on Easter Island continues to decrease. Oh, it continues to fall. Yes. Well, now they've got a whole influx of European diseases to cope with as well. They've got diseases to deal with. The culture's changing rapidly as well. Perhaps the very structured family tribal organisation is breaking down as well.

Missionaries come along, move everyone into one place, because that makes conversion much easier. So they break up this idea of tribal lands. So things are in flux and things are changing fast. So you've got quite radical reorganisation, you've got disease, you've got trade with the outside world. It must have been quite tumultuous decades, the early part of the 19th century. No, they were. And sadly, perhaps less scrupulous outsiders also see the island as an easy target, easy pickings. And so...

Peruvians in particular realize that the island is unprotected. It doesn't come under the colonial protection of anyone and see that here's this Polynesian island relatively close to South America.

Peruvians suddenly start needing slaves or certainly workers. And so they start these incredibly damaging raids on islands in the Pacific, but particularly to Easter Island, where several thousand islanders get lured onto ships, taken away to go and work on guano mines and things like that in Peru in the mainland.

Many of them don't survive the journey there, but of course, very few of them ever make their way back to the island. And when eventually international outcry says you've got to repatriate these Rapa Nui back to their island, they return just 15, having taken thousands away. And these 15, sadly, bring smallpox with them. And so that smallpox then decimates much of the remaining population. So...

It's very easy to malign the work of missionaries in the Pacific at that time. But if it hadn't been perhaps for the Catholic missionaries on Easter Island, then the population might have disappeared altogether. So it's they that really raise the alarm and say, look, this island needs outside help.

So by the mid-19th century, the numbers are really down to very... Do they say that it got as low as 110 people at once in one census? And there had been thousands of people living there. Yeah, I mean, no one knows the exact high number, but possibly 12,000, 14,000 people would have been required to have the kind of society that was clearly living there at one point to create this culture that Easter Island has become so famous for today. Well, it does eventually fall under some sort of European yoke, does it?

Catholic missionaries arrive. And so when they come, they actually become the first people to almost raise the alarm about what's happening on Easter Island and how the population continues to decrease. And so it's they that actually request someone to take ownership of the island. And through geographical, I suppose, proximity, it becomes a Chilean possession in 1888. Great.

So before those missionaries, there weren't any really Europeans living on there? No, because there was nothing for them. If there had been resources, if there had been precious metals, or if there had been something...

Then Cook and others, the message would have got back that this is somewhere we need to colonize. But no one was interested in Easter Island. It didn't offer anything except at this stage, hundreds of fallen over statues. There wasn't even a single statue standing up at this point. Okay, now why is that? Why are the statues all fallen over? So something has happened on the island that has caused a complete rejection of that former culture. And people aren't quite sure whether it's

This intertribal warfare that if you know that your neighboring tribe has their ancestors watching over them and protecting them, which is what those statues used to do, then perhaps the first thing you do is when you take their land because you want their land and their resources, perhaps at the same time you also then throw over their statues to nullify the power of their ancestors.

Or alternatively, it's an island-wide rejection of a religious belief that you and your ancestors have put hundreds of years of work into. It's like the Protestant Reformation. You're told that larger and larger statues, suddenly life will get better for you, and you're breaking your back building these things, and nothing's getting better, and life's getting worse on this island.

And so it might be that there comes a point where everyone just goes, do you know what? We're done with this. Birdman. Birdman's what we need. Yeah, Birdman comes to the fore. And did the Catholic missionaries succeed in getting rid of the Birdman theory and replacing it with Christianity? They did. So they obviously didn't like the idea of people who were worshipping bird's eggs. And so sadly, they came along and replaced it and found actually the islanders fairly easy to convert to Christianity. And so...

Whether by that point the Birdman competition wasn't quite so deep-rooted as it had once been, who knows? But there seems to have been a relatively smooth transition into Christianity. And as a result of the Chilean takeover, does Easter Island and its people get focused more towards Spanish-speaking Latin America and away from their hereditary customary links, what would have been links with the rest of the Pacific world? So to a certain degree, yes, except that Chile was...

Fortunately today, but Chile was so useless as a colonizing power that instead of imposing their culture heavily on it, they sent one cargo ship a year to the island. And that was really their commitment. So what you don't get, which you get in other parts of the Pacific, you don't get this dominance of an outside culture or language. So today, everyone, most people are bilingual. People speak Spanish on the island because it's the official language. But people also speak Rapa Nui.

Whereas perhaps if another nation had come in and taken possession and control of Easter Island, you might have had that Rapa Nui ultimately being replaced entirely. So it's something that we're very grateful for today. The fact that Chile has been perhaps, I mean, but again, you're dealing with something that's two and a half thousand miles away. And has no economic value in the minds of politicians. No. What it does actually have is quite important strategic value to Chile today because it gives them an enormous part of the Pacific that they wouldn't otherwise have otherwise.

And so in terms of things like shipping routes, air routes, and particularly now with marine protected areas and things like that, the island is suddenly becoming quite relevant. But this is all in the last 20 years or so. When you went there, did you fly? So I flew there. There were two flights a week, I remember. And it was really just a refueling stop between flights from Chile to Tahiti in French Polynesia. But given the distances and the fact there's no other airstrip anywhere in that part of the Pacific,

They used to refuel on Easter Island and then carry on. But I remember the time I first went, I think there were about 30 of us that got off the plane and were actually staying on the island. So I couldn't believe it, given what I thought was the attractions of Easter Island. I just couldn't believe that no one else was. And it's still just as remote. If you go there now, are there lots of tourists? Well, so, I mean, there's now a minimum of one flight a day. So, I mean, really tourism is dictated by the amount of flights to the island, occasional cruise ships, but very few.

So I think then the nice thing about the island today is it doesn't feel overrun. But I think it's something that the island does have to be careful of because, of course, as places grow in popularity and we've all been to places, say, 20 years apart where you go once and it feels very untouched. You go back and it feels completely overrun because these places can change quickly. So hopefully, I think they are very aware of it.

It will be protected because you can give out a certain amount of passes to the island per year and things like that and therefore keep a cap on tourism. And it sounds like a very exciting place to be a historian or archaeologist because there's so much at stake. There's still some really big questions that we're trying to answer. It is. The frustrating part is that the islanders themselves, there's a slight reluctance towards outside archaeology.

archaeologists, historians coming in and particularly digging around and things like that. So I think 20, 30 years ago, speaking to archaeologists who were digging then, they say this was absolute nirvana for them. I mean, this was an untouched gold mine where they could come in and really make significant finds and come away from each expedition believing they'd understood more. Now I gather the paperwork and the bureaucracy is so difficult. Yeah.

that sadly it's becoming less the case. But on the good side, more islanders themselves are now going to university to study archaeology and study history. And so you've got this sudden emergence of a younger generation of island-born experts who will hopefully take that forward. And so we won't therefore need to rely quite so much on sort of outside input. And how many Rapa Nuins are there today?

So the island population is about, I think it's about 9,000 at the moment, of which just over 50% are considered Rapa Nui. So they're of Polynesian descent. The remainder are mainly mainland Chileans that have settled there.

And then a few odd outsiders like myself. Like you, living in your tent. Yeah, well, yes. So it was an incredible experience. And obviously I went there with no notion that I was going to live there at all. But it became obviously a life-changing decision when I did. James, it's a pleasure to have you with us. Thanks, Dan. Thanks for having me here. ♪

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