The Many, Many Invasions of Sicily
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Located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea is its largest island, Sicily. Given its size and location, Sicily has been the key for any empire, kingdom, or civilization that wanted to control the Mediterranean. As a result, Sicily has been one of the most contested pieces of land in the history of the world. For over 3,000 years, one army after another invaded and occupied the island before getting kicked out by someone else.

Learn more about Sicily and its long history of invasion and conquest on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily. This podcast is brought to you in part by Stash.

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Italy has often been described as a boot, and if that's true, then Sicily is the ball that's getting kicked by the boot. Before we get into the history of Sicily, a bit about the island itself. Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It's slightly larger than Sardinia, which is also part of Italy. Unlike other islands in the Mediterranean, Sicily is very close to the European mainland. At the Strait of Messina, Sicily is only 3.1 kilometers or 1.9 miles away.

The most prominent feature on the island is Mount Etna. Europe's highest and most active volcano, it has shaped the island's geography and ecology for millennia. Sicily's interior is largely hilly and mountainous, with rich agricultural zones producing citrus, olives, grapes, and wheat, while its coasts are dotted with cliffs, beaches, and natural harbors. In addition to its strategic location, its fertile farmland has also made it attractive to everyone who came there over the years.

The human presence on Sicily stretches back to the Paleolithic period, with evidence of humans dating back as far as 12,000 BC. Early inhabitants were likely hunter-gatherers living in caves and using stone tools. They likely got to Sicily by walking there when sea levels were lower. Archaeological sites like the Adura Caves near Palermo reveal cave art depicting human figures in dynamic poses, hinting at ritualistic or social significance.

By the Neolithic period around 6000 BC, agricultural and animal domestication began to appear, likely influenced by interactions with mainland Italy and the eastern Mediterranean. During the Copper and Bronze Ages, Sicily saw the rise of increasingly complex societies. Distinct cultural groups such as the Castelluccio culture in southeastern Sicily left behind burial chambers, ceramics, and fortified hilltop villages.

Around this time, the three main indigenous people of Sicily, the Sicani, the Elameans, and the Sicils emerged. Their exact origins are still debated by anthropologists, but they were likely a mix of local people and migrations from mainland Italy and the Aegean. The first group to encounter these native Sicilians were the Phoenicians.

Around 1000 BC, the Phoenicians, who were seafaring traders from the eastern Mediterranean based in modern-day Lebanon, began establishing colonies and trading posts along the western and northern coasts of Sicily. Drawn by the island's strategic location on key maritime trade routes, they founded settlements such as Modia, Panormus, and Saluntum, which served as hubs for commerce and cultural exchange.

The Phoenicians interacted with the island's indigenous populations through trade and occasional alliances. Their presence was primarily mercantile than imperial, focused on controlling trade rather than conquering territory. About 250 years later, the next group that showed up were the Greeks. The Greek colonization of Sicily began around 750 BC, when the settlers from mainland Greece established their first colony at Naxos, followed soon by others such as Syracuse.

These Greek city-states were founded primarily along the eastern and southern coasts where fertile land and natural harbors made settlement ideal. The Greeks brought with them their language, religion, art, and political structures, transforming Sicily into one of the most culturally vibrant regions of the Mediterranean. Greek Sicily became a center of philosophy, architecture, and literature, producing figures like the mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse.

Over time, the Greek colonies grew into powerful, often rivalrous city-states that clashed not only with each other, but also with the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians in the West. From the 6th to the 3rd centuries BC, Carthage, a powerful Phoenician city-state in North Africa, established control over western Sicily, gradually expanding its influence over the former Phoenician settlements that I previously mentioned, such as Motia, Panormus, and Saluntum.

As Greek city-states expanded in the east and south, Carthaginian Sicily became the western stronghold, leading to centuries of conflict between the two civilizations. These clashes, known as the Sicilian Wars, involved major battles and shifting alliances, particularly between Carthage and the Greek city of Syracuse, the dominant power in eastern Sicily.

This prolonged struggle eventually drew the attention of a rising power on the Italian mainland, Rome, setting the stage for the Punic Wars, during which Carthage dominance in Sicily would come to an end. The Roman conquest of Sicily began with the outbreak of the First Punic War in 264 BC, a conflict between Rome and Carthage over control of the western Mediterranean. Sicily, strategically located and rich in resources, became the central battleground.

After over two decades of fierce naval and land battles, Rome defeated Carthage and, in 241 BC, annexed western Sicily, its first province outside of the Italian mainland. Rome gradually extended its control over the entire island, and during the Second Punic War, the city of Syracuse, a long-standing Greek power, resisted Roman rule under King Hieronymus and the famed mathematician Archimedes.

In 212 BC, after a lengthy siege, Syracuse fell to the Romans, completing the Roman domination of Sicily. Under Roman rule, the island became a vital agricultural hub, especially for grain, earning it the nickname Rome's Breadbasket. Though Sicily retained elements of its Greek and Phoenician heritage, it was fully integrated into the Roman administrative and economic system. The Romans ruled Sicily for almost 700 years.

Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, Sicily experienced a brief period of Vandal rule, when the Vandals, a Germanic tribe who had established a kingdom in North Africa, launched naval raids and temporarily seized control of parts of the island around 440. Their occupation was short-lived, but marked by plundering and disruption of trade.

By the late 5th century, control of Sicily passed to the Ostrogoths, another Germanic people who had taken over much of Italy under King Theodoric the Great. The Ostrogoths ruled Sicily from 493 to 535, generally maintaining Roman administrative structures and respecting local customs. The Byzantine Empire then gained control of Sicily in 535 during Emperor Justinian's I campaign to reconquer former Western Roman territories in what became known as the Gothic War.

Under Byzantine rule, which lasted nearly four centuries, Sicily was governed as part of the Exarchate of Africa and later became a military province. The Byzantines fortified cities, promoted Orthodox Christianity, and re-established imperial institutions, although their control was often challenged by internal strife and external threats.

While the island remained an important cultural and economic center, it suffered from frequent raids by the Lombards from mainland Italy and eventually came under pressure from Muslim forces in North Africa. By the early 9th century, Byzantine authority had weakened significantly, paving the way for an Arab conquest. The Arab conquest of Sicily began in 827, when Muslim forces from the Aglibid Emirate of North Africa launched an invasion with the support of a disgruntled Byzantine commander.

The campaign was slow and arduous, lasting over 70 years, as the Arabs faced stiff resistance from Byzantine strongholds and difficult terrain. Key cities fell gradually, Palermo in 831, Messina in 843, and Syracuse in 878, with the final Byzantine outpost at Teramina falling in 902. Under Muslim rule, Sicily flourished culturally and economically, becoming an emirate centered at Palermo, which transformed into a vibrant capital.

The Arabs introduced advanced agriculture techniques, new crops like citrus sugarcane and cotton, and architectural styles, while fostering a multicultural society of Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Though fragmented at times among rival Muslim dynasties, Islamic Sicily became a beacon of learning and prosperity in the central Mediterranean until the arrival of the Normans in the 11th century.

The Norman conquest of Sicily began in 1061 when Robert I and his brother Robert Giscard, Norman knights from southern Italy, launched a campaign to expel the Muslim rulers. After three decades of warfare, the Normans completed their conquest in 1091, establishing the County of Sicily, which later became the Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II in 1130.

The Norman kingdom was renowned for its religious tolerance, blending Latin, Greek, Arab, and Jewish cultures, and Palermo became a center of art, science, and administration, as it had been under Muslim rule. After the death of the last Norman king, the island passed in 1194 to the Hohenstaufen dynasty, a German royal house led by Emperor Henry VI and later his son Frederick II, who ruled both Sicily and the Holy Roman Empire.

Frederick II's reign marked a high point of intellectual and administrative sophistication. However, after his death, Pope Clement IV opposed Hohenstaufen power and granted Sicily to Charles I of Anjou, initiating Angevin rule in 1266. The French Angevins ruled harshly, leading to the famous Sicilian Vespers uprising in 1282, which expelled them and marked the end of their control over the island.

After the Sicilian Vespers Uprising, Sicily came under the control of the Crown of Aragon, beginning a period of Aragonese rule that would later merge into Spanish rule. The island was governed as a separate kingdom, although increasingly tied to the political orbit of Spain as Aragon united with Castile in the late 15th century. Under Spanish rule, Sicily was administered by viceroys on behalf of the Spanish monarchs. And while the island retained some autonomy, power was centralized and dominated by a foreign elite.

The Spanish period brought some stability and integration into the broader Spanish empire, but it was also marked by economic decline, heavy taxation, and repression of dissent, including the activity of the Inquisition. Spain ruled Sicily until the 18th century. The Savoy period in Sicily was brief, beginning in 1713, when the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession, awarded the island to the House of Savoy in Italy.

However, their rule only lasted until 1720, when Sicily was exchanged with Austria for Sardinia. The Austrian Habsburgs then ruled Sicily from 1720 to 1735, administering it as part of their broader European empire. Although relatively peaceful, both the Savoy and Austrian periods were short-lived and left limited cultural or political impact before Sicily was conquered by the Spanish Bourbons, who restored it as a separate kingdom.

The Bourbon rule of Sicily began in 1735 when Charles Bourbon, later Charles III of Spain, took control of the island after defeating the Austrians and established the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a union of Sicily and Naples under a single crown. The Bourbons ruled for over a century, initially bringing stability and some modernization to the region. However, their reign was also marked by authoritarianism, economic stagnation, and increasing social inequality.

The rural population suffered under feudal land systems, while discontent grew amongst the middle class and reformers. Sicily experienced multiple uprisings, including the Sicilian Revolution of 1848, which briefly expelled the Bourbon forces before they regained control. Ultimately, the kingdom collapsed when Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, overthrowing Bourbon rule and incorporating Sicily into the newly unified Kingdom of Italy.

Sicily has remained a part of Italy ever since 1860, but that didn't stop the occupations. When Italy joined the Axis powers in World War II, German troops were stationed on the island and the country was de facto ruling it. When the British and Americans sought to invade Europe, the first place they landed was Sicily, which Winston Churchill had called the soft underbelly of Europe.

The massive Allied invasion of the island took place in July of 1943. British and American forces under the generals Bernard Montgomery and George S. Patton launched amphibious and airborne assaults to capture Sicily from Axis control. The campaign lasted just over a month, ending with the Allied capture of Messina on August 17, 1943. The invasion marked a turning point in the war, leading to the downfall of Benito Mussolini, the collapse of Fascist Italy, and opening the path for the Allied invasion of the Italian mainland.

After the war in 1946, Sicily was granted autonomous status within the newly established Italian Republic, reflecting both its distinct identity and the importance of regional self-governance. There's a lot more to be said about Sicily, and I'll do so in future episodes. For example, it has a unique language that is distinct from Italian, and it's been influenced by all the different people who have ruled the island.

But to understand the island, you first have to understand its history, and that history is one of many, many invasions and conquests which have taken place over the last 3,000 years. The executive producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The associate producers are Austin Okun and Cameron Kiefer.

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