Tilemaking
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This is the Sleepy History of Tile Making, narrated by Simon Mattox, written by Angela Wood. Decorative tiles in their many forms are featured in daily life for thousands of years. Just think of the architecture in cities like Lisbon or the colorful geometric patterns in mosques around the world. Tonight,

We're embarking on a slow-paced journey to discover the history of tilemaking. We'll learn how early tilemakers developed their craft in ancient Egypt, and we'll see how journeys along the Silk Road and across the Atlantic Ocean led to cross-cultural influence. Artisans took inspiration from each other while making the tiles their own. So just relax

and let your mind drift as we explore the sleepy history of tile making. There are different opinions as to whether tile making began in ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia. But according to historical records, the ancient Egyptians were some of the first people to work with tiles, possibly as early as around 4000 BCE. The Egyptians were talented stonemasons,

Due to their geographical location in North Africa, they had the raw materials at their disposal to create ceramic tiles. The Egyptians had access to two main types of clay. The first was known as marl clay, often found in the deserts of Upper Egypt. As it had a high calcium carbonate content, when baked it either turned white or cream in color.

The second was Nile clay. This was made up of stone particles, feldspar, quartz, and sand, and came from the banks of the River Nile. It was easy to create ceramics from Nile clay, as it was high in silicon and iron oxide. This meant that when the clay was fired at high temperatures, it rendered the objects a reddish-brown shade. In addition to tiles,

Nile clay was often used to make jugs and cooking utensils. It didn't take long for the Egyptians to notice that when certain materials were heated at different temperatures, new colors and finishes were created. This led them to develop their own glazing technique known as faience.

The Egyptians realized that certain materials, such as crushed quartz, could be mixed with a binding agent, lime for example. When this mixture was heated at high temperatures, typically around 800 to 1000 degrees Celsius, a thin, glassy layer formed on the surface. This process, known as vitrification,

created a glossy, semi-translucent surface that resembled glass. The faience technique featured in the earliest tile murals and friezes, and it was also used to create beads and jewelry. Many faience tiles were turquoise in color, a glaze made primarily with cobalt and copper oxide.

Turquoise had great meaning to the ancient Egyptians, as it symbolized rebirth, fertility, and magic. Some examples of early Egyptian tiles can still be seen in temples and tombs around Egypt today. While the Egyptians were producing tiles thousands of years ago, they weren't the only ones. Mesopotamia is often considered the birthplace of tilemaking.

This was a vast area that includes present-day Iraq. Mesopotamia was a patchwork of verdant plains, deserts, and mountains. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flowed through valleys, and the diverse terrain held unique minerals and materials that could be used for tilemaking. Simple clay tiles were produced here around 3000 BCE.

and possibly earlier, they would have had a practical function, being used for roofs, floors, and drainage systems. Mesopotamia has often been referred to as the cradle of modern civilization, home to important cities such as Uruk and Ur. But it was in the ancient city of Babylon that many early examples of tiles were excavated.

The Ishtar Gate was a main entrance into the inner city of Babylon. It was said to stand at over 12 meters tall and was covered in cobalt blue glazed tile bricks. The tile murals depicted sacred animals associated with divinities, such as lions, bulls, and dragons. Like the ancient Egyptians, the people of Mesopotamia

believed that the color blue held great significance, with connections to the sea and sky. Although the Ishtar Gate in all its splendor is no more, a reconstruction can be seen in Berlin's Pergamon Museum. Before we move on, it's worth noting another interesting development in Mesopotamia. In addition to working with clay tiles,

People in this region also began to design mosaics from pieces of stone, ivory, and shell. This technique would evolve over the centuries and appear across the Mediterranean. That brings us to ancient Greece. Around the 5th century BCE, the Greeks were refining their own mosaic designs.

While these may have been influenced by earlier traditions from Mesopotamia, the Greeks developed their own distinctive styles. Artisans used tiny pieces of glass, marble, and shell to make complex, eye-catching mosaics. These designs were unlike anything that had been seen before. They featured depictions of animals and flowers, mythological scenes,

and Greek gods and goddesses. The tiles were used to line the floors and to make wall art in opulent villas. Later, in Roman times, Greek tile makers were sometimes employed to create mosaic artworks in Roman homes and temples. The ancient Greeks also came up with a different kind of mosaic, which was ideal for outdoor use.

they used cut stones and glass pieces known as tesserae. These were bound with mortar to create more durable designs. As these tiles had greater resistance, they were often used for walkways. Tesserae also allowed for creative expression. Careful arrangement of the tiles gave some mosaics a remarkable sense of depth and realism.

an effect that could not easily be achieved in paintings at the time. Often, the mosaics survive longer than the properties they decorated. Centuries later, many are still being excavated on Greek islands. A famous example of Greek mosaic artwork is the House of Dionysus on Delos, a small uninhabited island near Mykonos.

The ruins contain well-preserved mosaics dating to the 2nd century BCE, including a vivid image of the god Dionysus riding a tiger. As we've seen, the ancient Romans appreciated the artistry of the Greeks, but they themselves were also masterful innovators and engineers.

And between the 1st century BCE and the 6th century CE, when the Roman Empire was in full flow, they laid the groundwork for many tile techniques, which are still used today. For the Romans, tiles were not only meant to be pretty and decorative, they also had to have a practical purpose. So, the Romans found unique ways to line rooftops with ceramic tiles.

This helped to prevent rainwater from pouring into buildings. The ceramic materials were used to create teguli, flat tiles, to place on rooftops. These were combined with imbrex tiles, rounded ceramic tiles that overlapped the joints between the flat tiles. This groundbreaking innovation was so successful that similar techniques are still used today.

The Romans also created a device known as the hypercourst, an invention that gave rise to modern-day central heating. The hypercourst worked by placing a furnace below ground and raising the floor with stacked layers of ceramic tiles and concrete.

This allowed the heat to circulate beneath the floor and via ceramic wall tubes known as caliduts. It was also a convenient way to warm water in public baths. Roman bathhouses were popular places for citizens to bathe and socialize. They were prevalent in Roman cities across Europe. A pristine example still exists in England.

in the aptly named city of Bath. Many floors in Roman houses and baths were also covered in mosaics. The Romans, like the Greeks, also placed decorative tiles on walls and floor surfaces. The mosaics were made with colored cubes of ceramic, glass, or stone, which were cut into tiny pieces and held together with plaster.

This was the Roman version of Tesserae. The tiles were a symbol of a homeowner's wealth and status. While artworks tended to represent life in ancient Rome, they also depicted everything from wildlife and mythology to arena contests. As the Roman Empire spread throughout Europe and North Africa,

Mosaics began to appear in villas, palaces, and even in early basilicas. But after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE, decorative floor tiles and mosaics largely fell out of use, and due to the loss of infrastructure and resources, tiles were no longer available for roofing.

many builders turned to using more basic materials, like thatch and timber. In the centuries that followed, the church and wealthy families took over many resources, even the kilns that were used to bake the tiles. No longer a feature of everyday architecture, tiles and mosaics became luxuries.

So far, our story has mainly focused on tilemaking in the West, in civilizations such as Ancient Greece. But of course, during this period of history, tilemaking was also developing in the East. In China, early examples date back to the early Longshan period, specifically to the period between 2400 and 2200 BCE.

In the Loess Plateau in north central China, tiles were being used for rooftops of important buildings. They consisted of three different styles of tile: semi-cylindrical cover tiles that looked a bit like half-tubes, trapezoid-shaped pan tiles with raised sides, and simpler flat tiles. Archaeologists believe that this early tilemaking was a community endeavor,

as it would have required a huge amount of labor to make so many tiles. As centuries passed, ceramic tiles appeared on rooftops throughout China. During the Zhong Dynasty from the 7th century CE and later during the Song and Ming dynasties, tiles were used to decorate temples, palaces, city gates, and mausoleums.

The roof tiles were usually made from clay and combined with different glazes to give them their vivid colors and lustrous sheen. As the popularity of roof tiles grew, they became more refined and evolved, but also more regulated. The colored glazes were used to reflect the social standing of those living in a building.

In some cases, the colors may also have been related to the five elements of earth, water, fire, metal, and wood. Yellow tiles were sacred, representing the divine and the center of all things. The color was also associated with the Yellow River, which was known as the birthplace of Chinese civilization.

Yellow tiles were reserved for use in the grand halls and imperial palaces of Chinese emperors, signifying their power and authority. Examples can be found in the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City in China's capital, Beijing. Such buildings were often surrounded by red walls and gates. The red represented the element of fire.

and the color was synonymous with joy and good fortune. In contrast, blue tiles were associated with the celestial realm. Incredible examples can be seen at the Temple of Heaven, also in Beijing. Green roof tiles, representing the wood element as well as growth and harmony, were often found in religious institutions.

as well as mansions, gates, and temples. Black tiles symbolized water, which meant that they were used in gardens, terraces, and pavilions. They were also commonly used for residential architecture. Over the centuries, roof tiles and ceramic wall tiles became an important part of Chinese culture.

They featured on some of the country's most iconic buildings and on imperial monuments such as nine dragon walls. But the story of tile-making in China doesn't end here. There is another strand to this tale. When the Han Dynasty ruled China, the emperors had a vision. And that vision was to establish a trade route between East and West.

In the year 130 BCE, they opened what is now known as the Silk Road. It became famous for the high-quality silk textiles that were traded along the route. The Silk Road was a network of trading posts, beginning in Xi'an, China, and stretching for 4,000 miles. It spanned several countries,

and consisted of different routes leading through Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, India, Persia, and Turkey. Along the Silk Road, merchants would carry with them everything from exotic spices, tea, and silk fabrics to crossbows and other valuable items. During the Zhong Dynasty,

from 618 CE and the Song Dynasty from 960 CE, the root was at its height and Chinese porcelain was becoming a popular commodity to trade. Early porcelain pieces were being manufactured using kaolin clay and potency stone, which was fired to 1,300 degrees Celsius. When the particles fused,

They caused a type of vitrification that created a delicate wall. It was durable, strong, and as white as snow. Due to the material's burgeoning popularity, the city of Jingduzheng became a hub for porcelain production. Larger quantities were placed in vast kilns now provided by the state.

The size of the kilns allowed over 25,000 porcelain pieces to be fired at the same time so that more could be exported along the Silk Road. In the early 1300s, cobalt pigments were arriving in China from Persia. Blue pigments had been used to decorate Chinese ceramics for years, but these new materials were more prestigious.

They produced vivid blue colors, rather than the sky-blue shades of Chinese cobalt. Artisans experimented with new techniques, applying Persian cobalt by hand to the white porcelain. They painted vines, plants, and various scenes with delicate brushstrokes. During the Ming Dynasty, from 1368 to 1644,

they also began to add phoenix and dragon motifs to their repertoire, emblems that became symbolic of the era. The Persian cobalt could withstand high kiln temperatures without damaging the patterns, and soon the updated porcelain pieces were revered by foreign dignitaries and merchants. Although exports were thriving, porcelain tiles were relatively rare.

Artisans preferred to focus on more elaborate jugs, vases, and plates. There is evidence, however, that some buildings were decorated with porcelain tiles. The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, for example, was built in the 15th century. In the centuries that followed, blue and white porcelain designs became known throughout the world.

And, as we'll see later, they inspired a whole new generation of tilemakers in Europe. Far west of China, in Uzbekistan, tilemaking was thriving. Uzbekistan stood at the crossroads of the Silk Road as a bustling hub of trade. But the road to get there was unforgiving. Travelers had to navigate deserts and towering mountain ranges.

In many areas, there was little food for travelers and their animals, so very few merchants completed the entire journey. Instead, they would converge in Uzbekistan, in large roadside inns known as karavansarais. The inns provided warmth and shelter, and each had a central courtyard.

areas where merchants could share their adventures beneath the stars over food and drinks. Goods could be exchanged safely in the caravanserais, everything from horses and camels to gold, porcelain, tea, paper, perfume, and silk. Artisans in Uzbekistan benefited greatly from their geographical position on the Silk Road.

Not only did they see firsthand the porcelain arriving from China, but they also caught sight of the ceramics, minerals, and materials from Persia. Artisans could also promote their own arts and crafts to merchants passing through. The Uzbek people were already masters of many trades. They were highly skilled in embroidery,

carpet making, ceramics, and wood and metalworking. However, it was during these years that the craftspeople began to hone their tilemaking expertise. Around the 8th century, glazed tilework began to flourish in Uzbekistan. Tiles were made from local clay, which was cleaned and purified before being ready to work.

Artisans also made their own glazes, such as the Ishkor Glaze. This was made from the ashes of the wild Ishkor plant found in the deserts of the Fergana Valley. The plant ashes were blended with crushed quartz and minerals to create the most vivid shades of ultramarine, turquoise, and green.

Many original glazing techniques are still used in the region today, especially in and around the town of Ristan. In addition to making their own glazes, artisans also took inspiration from the materials making their way from Persia to China and vice versa.

Local craftspeople may have mixed Persian cobalt pigments and other imported materials with their own resources. Either way, one thing remains constant: their primary tile glazes were almost always different shades of blue. This was because, in the Islamic tradition, blue was a sacred color.

and from the 8th century onwards, Islam was the dominant religion in Uzbekistan. The color blue symbolized oneness with the universe, and turquoise, which was also widely used, was said to represent mystical and magical properties. Islamic art traditionally avoided depictions of humans or animals,

As a result, most tiles featured geometrical patterns, calligraphy, or arabesque designs. Some artisans, however, did find abstract ways to incorporate wildlife. They were able to represent local folklore and legends in their ceramic creations.

During this time, many Uzbek designs consisted of small square tiles being placed strategically to create larger symmetrical patterns, thus making a mirror image. Blue tiles were also inlaid with terracotta, yellow, or darker colored outlines. This helped to break up the repetitive patterns and create a mesmerizing effect.

The tiles were sometimes baked in kilns with woods such as willow. Willow gave off a white smoke while burning instead of a black one, so the smoke wasn't absorbed by the glaze. The colors of the tiles remained bright and vibrant. As tile making continued to grow in Uzbekistan, local architects noticed that the tiles were durable and water resistant.

They could be used for a multitude of decorative purposes. During the Timurid Empire around the 15th century, the country's grandest buildings were covered in beautiful, shimmering blue tiles. These included mosques, minarets, mausoleums, and learning centers known as madrasas.

Wonderful examples of this ancient craftsmanship can still be seen today in cities such as Samarkand, Bukhara, and Tashkent. Further along the Silk Road, southwest of Uzbekistan, was another key trading post: Persia, now known as Iran. Glazed bricks and tiles had been used in Persia for centuries.

The oldest date back to around the 12th century BCE. Artisans had used metal oxides, including cobalt, copper, tin, and magnesium, to create strong and resistant glazes. In the early days, mosaics were made in large quantities and used to decorate religious buildings, mosques, and city gates throughout the country.

Artisans created mosaics by cutting glazed tiles into geometric shapes and arranging them into complex patterns. The mosaics were usually created in blue, white, turquoise, and green, occasionally with elements of orange. The designs became the blueprint for all Persian tile art to follow.

Over the years, Persian artisans began to explore new and creative ways to elevate their tile making. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, gyre tiles became prominent. These comprised sets of five tiles made up of geometrical patterns which formed different shapes when fitted together. These shapes included the rhombus, pentagon,

decagon, bowtie, and the elongated hexagon. Gyro-tile designs were precise in nature, and as they were easy for artisans to fit onto walls and ceilings, they were often used to adorn larger installations. In recent years, researchers from Harvard and Princeton discovered something fascinating.

Some early Gira tiles created highly sophisticated patterns. They resembled what is now known as Penrose tiling. A small number of geometric shapes tessellate without overlaps or gaps, forming complex, non-repeating designs. The same patterns were not discovered in the Western world until the 1970s.

This shows just how advanced and innovative the artisans of Persia were for their time. During the Safavid Empire, around the 15th and 16th centuries, another kind of tile gained popularity. It was known as the seven-color tile, or half-drang tile. This style was more refined and modern.

It was created by combining fine and glazed clay with colors such as azure, turquoise, red, yellow, white, fawn, and black. The tiles featured cultural motifs, which made them popular with local people. Artisans made seven-color tiles by drawing the designs on paper and then transferring them onto the individual tiles with charcoal.

They were then coated with colored glazes before being fired. The tiles were cheaper and faster to produce than earlier options, and the use of different colors gave artisans more creative freedom. The seven-color tiles were often used to decorate mosques and places of learning. Persian tiles were highly influential, and they are still a symbol of local culture to this day.

They feature on many buildings, such as the palaces and mosques in Isfahan. The route between Iran and Turkey was a crucial and final stage of the Silk Road network. Istanbul, then known as Constantinople, was located on the sparkling Bosphorus River in present-day Turkey. From here, goods imported along the Silk Road were often shipped further west,

to Venice, Rome, and beyond. There were many trades made between Persia and Turkey. Both countries flourished during the Seljuk Empire around the 11th century. And, as in Uzbekistan, roadside inns were built to house merchants and their animals overnight. Turkey, or Anatolia as it was known at the time, already had a long history of pottery.

But in the early 1400s, there were significant advances in glazed tilework. It was then that the first Iznik tiles began to appear on mosques and tombs throughout Turkey. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, trade dynamics shifted. The Silk Road gradually fell into decline.

However, centuries of trade had allowed Turkish tilemakers to glean inspiration from the imported ceramics. And in the small lakeside town of Iznik, they now saw an opportunity to create their own designs. Early Iznik tiles combined multiple influences.

Tilemakers took inspiration not only from Chinese designs, but also Persian motifs, incorporating elements such as Islamic geometry. But by the late 15th century, artisans were beginning to move away from traditional earthenware tiles. Instead, they began to create freetware, a type of pottery that had originated in Iraq centuries earlier.

Freightware was made by using small amounts of clay and mixing it with silica, quartz, and liquefied fragments of glass. When fired on low temperatures in a kiln, it turned a pure white color, similar to porcelain. The material became renowned for its durability, and when combined with tin glazing, it had a lustrous sheen that rivaled the Chinese pieces.

Ottoman rulers in Turkey were great admirers of Chinese blue and white porcelain. They saw it as exclusive and luxurious. So, Iznik artisans began to tailor designs to cater to their tastes. They used the colors of Ming Dynasty porcelain and combined them with traditional Ottoman arabesque patterns. The craftspeople also used Armenian bole

an iron-rich pigment to add distinctive red flourishes to their fruitware tilework. The initial trend was for Iznik tiles to feature floral imagery, such as tulips, carnations, or roses, which would be intertwined with leaves. They also used calligraphy and geometrical patterns that symbolized the oneness of the universe and the greatness of creation.

To create the patterns, the design was drawn onto paper and transferred onto the tile using charcoal dust and a needle. The tiles were then painted with metal oxide shades: iron oxide for red tones and cobalt oxide for the deep blues. Then the tiles were glazed. Although they were robust and water-resistant,

The finish gave the tiles a delicate, satin-like appearance. After being air-dried, the tiles were kiln-fired, and it's during this stage that the vibrant colors emerged on the surface. Iznik tile designs evolved over the years. By the mid-16th century,

artisans had developed a distinct Ottoman identity using bold colors. Today, the main tile colors used include cobalt, malachite, turquoise, and coral. Visitors to Istanbul can see examples in the Topkapi Palace and the Süleymaniye Mosque. There's also the Blue Mosque, built in the early 17th century.

which contains over 20,000 blue and white Iznik tiles. On our journey so far, we've seen the influence of Islam in Persia, Uzbekistan, and Turkey. Between the 7th and 15th centuries, Islamic civilization expanded rapidly, also spreading to North Africa and southern Spain. As we've seen before,

Traditionally, humans and animals were not depicted in Islamic artwork. So, in places such as Morocco, new tile designs were geometric in style. They were created using mathematical formulas that symbolized nature, infinity, and unity with the universe. In Morocco, some tiles were made using a technique known as zelige,

These tiles were decorated with geometric shapes such as multi-sided polygons, stars, circles and squares. After being glazed and fired, the tiles were hand cut into specific geometric shapes using a chisel and hammer. Each piece was then laid on the floor, face down, soaked in water and pieced back together like a puzzle.

In southern Spain, the Azulejo tile was developed when the province of Andalusia was under Moorish rule. The Moors came from North Africa. They had spent years constructing elaborate palaces, towers, and gardens in cities like Seville, Córdoba, and Granada. Many of these landmarks were inlaid with colorful tiles.

which were beautifully glazed and fired with a matte or gloss finish. The Azulejo tile was influenced by the earlier Zelige style. In fact, the name Azulejo comes from an Arabic word meaning "small polished stone". In the early 1500s, not long after the end of Moorish rule in Spain, King Manuel I of Portugal came to visit.

He became so enamored by the Azulejo tilework he encountered that he wanted the tiles for his palace in Sintra. The king returned to Portugal with a vision, and in the years that followed, Portuguese artisans began to create their own interpretation of Azulejo tiles.

They gravitated away from the bright colors and Islamic styles of the Spanish tiles, and instead created their own versions in blue and white. The Portuguese Azulejo tiles proved to be so distinctive and popular that they became a national cultural symbol.

Tile making in Portugal was so revered that artists proudly signed their tiles and people used them to decorate the exteriors of their homes. This was not only for aesthetic purposes, but also because the glaze was waterproof and prevented damp from entering through the walls. The tiles were also used to tell stories.

biblical narratives on churches, and stories resembling comic strips in other public places. Today, visitors to Porto, Lisbon, or the Algarve can still see many buildings covered with Azulejo tiles. In the mid-16th century, ships were making expeditions from the Iberian Peninsula to the New World.

As a result, European tilemaking techniques also found their way to the small town of Puebla in Mexico. The people of Puebla were already skilled clay workers. This region of Mexico was surrounded by mineral-rich volcanic materials that gave impressive results.

Local people would venture outside the city to dig up the clay and then fire their jugs and pots using manure. When the Spanish arrived, the locals were introduced to potter's wheels and new glazing techniques. Many embraced the teachings, leading to the development of Talavera pottery. The name Talavera came from a small town in Spain

Talavera de la Reina, which was known for its quality ceramics. Mexican Talavera tiles were influenced by Spanish Azulejo style, combining this with local techniques and aesthetics. Artisans used a tin enamel process known as meolica or feance. This gave the surface of the tile an opaque, somewhat milky glaze.

The combination of quality local clay and high demand allowed Puebla's tile industry to flourish. In the years that followed, wealth was measured by the number of Talavera tiles decorating a building's facade, whether it be a family home or a business. Much later, Talavera tiles gained their own special designation.

and each tile made in the city had to meet a specific set of standards. For instance, an authentic Talavera tile could only contain certain colors, and it had to be hand-painted with natural pigments. Back across the Atlantic Ocean in the Netherlands, the Dutch East India Company had recently been formed. Their aim was to become major players in the global spice trade.

In 1604, a fleet of 15 ships set sail for the East Indies, a region including the country now known as Indonesia. Upon the ship's return, the Dutch people discovered that the cargo not only contained rare spices, but also beautiful examples of delicate Chinese porcelain.

Local artisans drew inspiration from the exotic blue and white pottery. They studied in detail the oriental designs that graced pots, vases, and plates. In the pretty canal town of Delft, studios opened, and craftspeople began to emulate the fine porcelain pieces using marl clay and tin glazing. The glaze contained cobalt oxide.

When fired at high temperatures, a chemical reaction occurred, producing a vivid blue. Artisans began to create plates, jugs, and tiles. Many Dutch homes at the time featured fireplaces, which were often caked in soot. The Delft tiles were a perfect solution to brighten and beautify the room. The tiles were also heat-resistant and easy to clean.

making them a popular choice for lots of households. The blue and white tiles were also prized by wealthy Dutch merchants. Many commissioned panels and murals to display in their tall canal-side houses. Early tiles were hand-painted with Dutch pastoral scenes, often featuring birds, flowers, windmills, and ships. As a sign of authenticity,

Some tiles were marked with the initials or symbol of the factory in which they were created. And over time, Delftware became so popular that it was widely exported throughout Europe. By the 19th century, Western Europe was in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, and tile manufacturing was about to change forever.

As brand new technologies emerged, factories were constructed in Britain and Germany to produce tiles in larger quantities. Hand-painted tiles were soon replaced with more cost-effective transfer printing. This was very different from the techniques that had been used before. The pieces were decorated using an engraved plate, usually made from steel or copper.

A print on paper was then transferred onto the tile. This allowed hundreds of tiles to be created with the same pattern. A technique called dust pressing also became popular. This involved pressing clay powder into metal molds under high pressure.

The new processes and faster delivery times brought large commissions from prominent institutions, such as the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Factories in France and Belgium also adopted transfer printing and machine-molded decoration, incorporating these features into their tile-making machinery. The trend even spread as far as Japan. However,

This new method of working was not without its challenges. The factories were often deemed unsafe places to work with long hours. Many people in Britain were strongly opposed to mass production, particularly supporters of the late 19th century arts and crafts movement.

Competition also rose as business owners and inventors rushed to apply for patents to protect their ideas. This didn't stop the tile industry from flourishing. Tiles became so popular that during the 1889 Paris exhibition, artists were encouraged to decorate locations throughout the city and, in New York,

Tiles with Art Nouveau influences were being used to add a little color and life to new subway stations. The typical patterns of the time were enhanced by glazing that now looked sleeker and more refined, thanks to the new technologies. But all this progress came at a cost.

As industrial production grew, many of the smaller traditional tile makers in countries like the Netherlands gradually went out of business. Today, in the 21st century, the evolution of tile making continues with methods such as UV, roto-color, and inkjet printing. Tiles can now be customized to individual preferences.

Some tiles even feature QR codes, which are embedded with information that can be scanned with a smartphone. And although most tiles are mass-produced in factories, there are still thousands of artisans around the world who prefer to make tiles the traditional way. They continue to use tried and tested techniques that were passed down through generations, helping to maintain the highest quality.

while keeping ancient traditions alive. As our world continues to transition into an era of technology, we should remember and be grateful for the early artisans. For these are the people who shape the cities we see and live in today. Thanks to their knowledge and dedication to their craft, we can still admire the vibrant facades of Lisbon

the beautiful blue-tiled buildings of Uzbekistan, and the glazed rooftop tiles in Beijing's Forbidden City. Soon enough, the next generation of tile makers will emerge, and they too will leave their legacies around the world, just as their ancestors did.